Continental Journal of Agricultural Science - Volume 4 (2010)



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Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF WEANING FOOD FORTIFIED WITH AFRICAN YAM BEAN (SPHENOSTYLIS STENOCARPA) FLOUR.

Okoye J.I.1, Ezigbo, V. O.2 And Animalu, I.L.3

1Department of Food Science and Technology and 3Department of Microbiology, Madonna University, Elele Campus, P.M.B 48, Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria and 2. Department of Industrial Chemistry, Anambra State University, P. M. B 02, Uli Anambra State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT 

The use of sorghum and African yam bean blended flours in the preparation of weaning food formulations was studied. The sorghum flour (SF) was composite with African yam bean flour (AYBF) at the levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. The weaning food formulations produced from the flour blends were analysed for their nutritional and sensory qualities using standard methods. The nutritional composition of the samples showed that the protein content of the formulations increased with increasing supplementation with African yam bean flour from 8.64% in 90:10 (SF:AYBF) to 13.44% in 50:50 (SF:AYBF) samples, while carbohydrate decreased. In the same vein, the energy content of the formulations increased gradually as the level of fortification with African yam bean flour increased from 368.98KJ in 90:10 (SF:AYBF) to 382.98KJ in 50:50 (SF:AYBF). The sensory evaluation carried out on different samples of weaning food formulation after reconstitution into gruel with boiling water showed that the formulation made from 100% sorghum flour used as control was the most acceptable by the judges and was also significantly different (p<0.05) from the other samples in flavour and texture. However, the formulation fortified with 50% African yam bean flour was scored highest in colour.

KEYWORDS: Weaning food, fortification, sorghum flour, African yam bean flour, quality assessment.

INTRODUCTION
Cereals and legumes, individually or as composites, are the main source of nutrients for weaning children in developing countries (Chavan and Kadam, 1989). Weaning foods commonly used in Nigeria are composed largely of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) with a limited amount of dried –milk powder. However, such mixtures have been shown to be poor in protein content and quality (Achi, 2005).

The fortification of weaning foods with a variety of inexpensive vegetable proteins from legumes, nuts and oilseeds has received considerable attention from nutritionists and food scientists in several sub-saharan African countries (Uzogara et al; 1990). This is because these grain legumes and oilseeds are relatively high in lysine, an essential amino acid deficient in most cereals (Nout, 1993). Whole legumes generally contain high amount of protein compared to other foods of plant origin (FAO, 2005). Ideally, the ingredients for low cost complementary foods must be derived from dietary staples that are available and affordable in the region of interest.

African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) is one of the edible grain legumes widely cultivated in Africa that is used for human and animal nutrition (Eke, 2002). Like most grain legumes cultivated in African, African yam bean is rich in protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals (Iwuoha and Eke, 1996). The protein of African yam bean is made up of over 32% essential amino acids, with lysine and leucine being predominant (Onyenekwe et al; 2000). The supplementation of cereal-based weaning foods with adequately processed African yam bean flour would help to improve their protein content and quality. It could also help to extend the use of this lesser known and utilized legume in a number of food preparations especially in developing countries for human consumption. The purpose of this study was to examine the nutritional and sensory qualities of weaning food formulations fortified with African yam bean flour at different levels of substitution.

Okoye J.I et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010

= = =MATERIALS AND METHODS   = White variety of sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) and African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) used for this study were procured from local markets in Owerri and Umuahia, respectively. This research work was carried out in Department of Food Science and Technology, Madonna University, Elele, Nigeria, in August, 2008. = = =Preparation of Sorghum Flour= The sorghum flour was prepared according to the method described by Ihekoronye (1999). During preparation, two kilograms of sorghum grains, which were free from dirts, damaged and contaminated grains were weighed, cleaned and soaked in tap water for 18h. During soaking, the water was changed occasionally at intervals of 6h to prevent fermentation.

Thereafter, the soaked grains were drained and wet milled (attrition mill) with tap water into fine slurry. The resulting slurry was sieved (muslin cloth) and allowed to sediment for 10h after which it was decanted. The sedimented and decanted slurry was eventually dewatered, spread on the trays and dried in the tray dryer (600C, 8h). After that, the dried cake obtained was milled (attrition mill) and sieved through a 500μm mesh sieve. The sorghum flour produced was finally packaged in sealed polyethylene bags for blending and preparation of weaning food formulations.

=Preparation of African Yam bean Flour= The African yam bean flour was prepared according to the method described by Eneche (2006). During preparation, two kilograms of African yam bean seeds which were free from foreign particles such as stones, leaves and sticks as well as damaged and contaminated seeds were weighed, cleaned and soaked in tap water containing 0.1% sodium metabisulphite (NaHS03) for 12h. Thereafter, the soaked seeds were manually dehulled, drained and boiled (1000C, 20 min). The dehulled and boiled seeds were spread on the trays and dried in the tray dryer (600C, 10h). After that, the dried seeds were immediately milled (attrition mill) and sieved through a 500μm mesh sieve. The cooked African yam bean flour produced was finally packaged in sealed polyethylene bags for blending and preparation of weaning food formulations.

=Preparation of Weaning Food Formulations= The weaning food formulations were prepared according to the method described by Agu and Aluyah (2004). During preparation, the sorghum flour (SF) was composite with African yam bean flour (AYBF) at the levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% in a Kenwood mixer (Model NX806 H) to obtain different samples of sorghum / African yam bean blended flour. After that, 5% vitamin mix, 5% mineral mix, 2% salt and 5% sucrose (sugar) were added to each of the flour blends and mixed thoroughly in a mixer (Model A409 G) for 10 min to produce fortified weaning food formulations. Thereafter, the fortified weaning food formulations obtained were individually packaged in sealed polyethylene bags and kept at ambient temperature conditions until further analysis. In addition, the weaning food formulation made with 100% sorghum flour was similarly prepared as reference. The various samples of weaning food formulation prepared from sorghum / African yam bean blended flours are shown in Table 1. = = =Chemical Analysis= <p style="text-align: justify;">The moisture, protein, fat, ash and fibre contents of each of the weaning food formulations were determined according the methods of AOAC (1995). The carbohydrate was determined by difference Okaka et al; (2000). The food energy was calculated from proximate composition according to the standard method described by Onwuka (2005). All determinations were carried out in triplicates. = = =Sensory Evaluation= <p style="text-align: justify;">The weaning food formulation prepared from 100% sorghum flour and the fortified samples with different levels of substitution with African yam bean flour were individually prepared into gruel with boiling water. During preparation, 20g of each sample was suspended with 50ml of tap water in a small plastic bowl. Thereafter, 60ml of boiling water was added to each of the suspended sample to produce hot gruel. After preparation, the various samples of gruel produced were scored by a panel of fifteen untrained judges drawn from the University Community for attributes of colour, flavour, texture and overall acceptability on a hedonic scale of 1-9 where 1 = dislike extremely and 9 = like extremely (Iwe, 2001).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Okoye J.I et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010 = = = = =Statistical Analysis= <p style="text-align: justify;">The means and standard deviations of all the data generated after the analyses were calculated. The results were subjected to Ducan multiple range test to detect significant differences (p<0.05) among the sample values (Powers, 1998). The turkey test was used in separating significant means.

=RESULTS AND DISCUSSION= <p style="text-align: justify;">The proximate composition of weaning food formulations prepared from sorghum / African yam bean flour blends are shown in Table 2. The moisture content of the weaning food formulations was significantly different from each other (p<0.05). They were also higher than those reported by Jipara et al; (2001). The protein content of the formulations ranged from 6.84% to 13.44%. The differences were observed because the protein content of the formulations increased as the level of fortification with African yam bean flour increased. However, the result is in agreement with the report of Nnam (2001). This addition effect was also observed for ash and fibre contents of the formulations. In other words, the ash and fibre contents of the formulations increased steadily with increasing supplementation with African yam bean flour. The results also showed that African yam beans are good sources of ash and fibre (Enwere, 1998). However, the opposite effect (subtraction effect) was observed for fat and carbohydrate contents of the formulations. The fat and carbohydrate contents of the formulations decreased readily with increasing content of African yam bean flour. They were also similar with those reported by Treche and Mbome (1999). The energy content of the formulations ranged from 362.10KJ to 382.98KJ. The energy content of the formulations was significantly different from each other (p<0.05). They were also higher than those reported by Okoye et al; (2007). Generally, the use of these products for feeding infants and weaning children should be encouraged because they contain both salt and sugar which are the major ingredients of oral rehydration therapy. However, infants and weaning children placed on these products may not need oral rehydration therapy solution.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The results of the sensory evaluation performed on different samples of reconstituted weaning food gruel made from sorghum / African yam bean flour blends are shown in Table 3. The various samples of gruel prepared from different weaning food formulations were generally scored high in all the sensory attributes evaluated. However, the gruel prepared from the formulation made from 100% sorghum flour used as control was most acceptable by the judges and was also significantly different (p<0.05) from the other samples fortified with African yam bean flour at different proportions in flavour and texture. The differences could be attributed to the unique quality of sorghum flour in the preparation of weaning food formulations (Thaoge et al; 2003). In addition, the result also indicated that the gruel made from the formulation fortified with 50% African yam bean flour had better colour than the other samples. The improvement in colour of the sample could be due to the ability of African yam bean products to retain some of the colour pigments found naturally in their seeds on exposure to heat during processing (Banigo et al; 2004).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 1: Samples of Weaning Food Formulation

<p style="text-align: justify;">Legend:

<p style="text-align: justify;">A – Weaning food formulation made with 100% sorghum flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">B – Weaning food formulation made with 90% sorghum flour and 10% African yam bean flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">C – Weaning food formulation made with 80% sorghum flour and 20% African yam bean flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">D – Weaning food formulation made with 70% sorghum flour and 30% African yam bean flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">E – Weaning food formulation made with 60% sorghum flour and 40% African yam bean flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">F – Weaning food formulation made with 50% sorghum flour and 50% African yam bean flour.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Okoye J.I et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010

= = =CONCLUSION= <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">Weaning food formulations of acceptable quality were prepared from sorghum / African yam bean blended flours. From the study, it was observed that the weaning food formulations fortified with different proportions of African yam bean flour generally had higher protein, ash and fibre contents than the formulation prepared from 100% sorghum flour. The fortification of weaning food formulations with adequately processed African yam bean flour would improve their nutritional quality and make them meet the protein –energy needs of children in the regions where protein-energy malnutrition is prevalent. Further studies should be carried out on the fortified weaning food formulations to determine their respective protein quality and amino acid profile.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 2: Means 1,2 of proximate composition of weaning food formulations Prepared from SF and SF: AYBF Blends on moisture free basis

<p style="text-align: justify;">1. Values are means of triplicate determinations.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">2. Means with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different from each other (p<0.05).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">Table 3: Means 1,2 of sensory evaluation performed on different samples reconstituted weaning food gruel prepared from SF and SF: AYABF Blends. <p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">1. Values are means of 15 untrained judges.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">2. Means with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different from each other (p<0.05).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

<p style="text-align: justify;">The author is grateful to Miss J.A. Nnani and Messers A.C. Ikpeama and F.E Ezeka for their support and contribution. The provision of research facilities by the management of Madonna University, Elele Campus, Rivers State, is also appreciated.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">to reduce viscosity of porridges with high protein, energy and solids (3%) content. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology; 19:305 – 310.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Treche, S. and Mbome, I.L. (1999). Viscosity, energy density and osmolality of gruels for infants prepared from locally produced commercial flours in some developing countries. ''International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition; 50:117 – 125. ''

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 17/08/2009

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 15/03/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

<p style="text-align: justify;">Okoye J.I.

<p style="text-align: justify;">19 Uke Street Phase 1 Omagba Layout, P.O. Box 273, Onitsha, Anambra State Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 - 19, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">GENESIS, CLASSIFICATION AND AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL OF THE SOILS DERIVED FROM KERRIKERRI SANDSTONE FORMATION IN NORTHERN NIGERIA.

<p style="text-align: center;">A.M. Hassan

<p style="text-align: center;">Crop Production Programme, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, PMB 0248, Bauchi-Nigeria

ABSTRACT
<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Genesis, classification and agricultural potentials of the soils derived from Kerrikerri sandstone formation in Bauchi State, Nigeria were investigated. Field and laboratory observations with the soils from five pedons, one each at crest, lower slope and valley floor, and two from middle slope positions, revealed that they were deep (>150 cm), brown (7.5YR 5/3) to very pale brown (10YR 7/3) and sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the upper horizon underlain by yellowish red (5RY 4/8) to brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) and gravely sand clay to clay horizons, with moderately well-developed sub-angular blocky structure and friable to very friable consistence. The soils were strongly to moderately acidic (pH. 5.1-5.9 in H2O, 3.8-5.3 in CaCl2), low in exchangeable bases (1.04 – 1.40 cmol (+) kg-1as well as exchange acidity (0.54 -1.90 cmol (+)kg –1 )with cation exchange capacity ranging between 4.4 and 27.6 cmol (+)kg-1 soil. The dominant pedogenic processes influencing the rate of soil development were found to be clay lessivation, colluvial-fluvial deposition and neoformation of minerals in the lower horizons as a result of downward leaching of the bases and likely better moisture condition at depth. The soils were classified according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy System (2003)/FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World Legend (1988) as Pedon 1 (Crest): Aquic Haplustult fine loamy, isomesic/Gleyic Acrisol, Pedons 2, 3 and 4 (Middle slopes 1 and 2 as well as Lower slope): Orthic Paleustults fine loamy kaolinitic, isohyperthermic/Orthic Acrisol, and Pedon 5 (Valley floor): Aquic Plinthic Haplustaults clayey, isohyperthermic/ Plinthic Acrisol.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: genesis, classification, agricultural potentials, sandstone, formation, lessivation.

INTRODUCTION
<p style="text-align: justify;">About 50% of Nigeria’s geological land mass consists of sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1) mainly sandstone of Cretaceous age (Adeleye and Dessauvagie, 1970), part of the sediments lays roughly along the River Niger and Benue Basins. They are collectively referred to as Nupe and Bima sandstone, respectively. Within the Benue Trough, the sandstone is referred to as Bima or Gombe sandstone under which the Kerrikerri sandstone formation exists. It is composed of grit, shale, and clay (Carter et al 1963). The soils derived from Kerrikerri formation possess a great potential for increasing crop production through expansion of the cultivable area and adoption of improved agro-technology. One of the main requirements towards the opening up of new areas for intensive farming is a detailed characterization and mapping of the soils within a given land area. Such information is not much available for the study area and other areas with similar soils. This study was aimed to investigate the morphological as well as phyisco-chemical properties of the dominant soils in Gwaram area within the Kerrikerri sandstone formation, and to classify them according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003) and the FAO/UNESCO (1988) World Soil Map Legend. Attempts have also been made to highlight the agricultural potentials of the soils and identify possible soil-related constraints to sustainable agricultural production. = = =MATERIALS AND METHODS=

The Study Area
<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">The area of study is located at Gwaram (10o15’N, 10o20’E, 145m above sea level), some 8km south east of Alkaleri Town (10o16’N, 10o20’E,) in the Alkaleri Local Government Area of Bauchi State, Nigeria. The Tertiary Sedimentary rocks consist of segment of flat –lying continental grits, sandstone and clays known as the Kerrikerri formation. They underlie the Kerrikerri Plateau and the Potiskum plain to the north (Dousse, 1969). Kerrikerri Plateau forms extensive rolling upstanding flat-topped Ironstone– capped relic hills. Bawden (1972) described the drainage pattern as widely spaced with stream lines as much as 1.6 km apart. In the north, tributary streams flow in narrow V-shaped valleys to the flood plain of the Gongola. Further south the Pai and its major

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">tributaries have flat-floored valleys bounded in most places by steep sides rising to the gentler plateau slopes. This formation occupies an area of 65,000 ha form which over 100 ha was investigated. The area is characterized by very deep and leached ferruginous soils previously identified as Ferralsols.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Receiving about 882 mm annual rainfall, the area has some 7 months (October – April) of dry season and diurnal temperatures averaging 31.6oC maximum and 13.1oC minimum. This puts the area in an isohyperthermic temperature regime. The area is situated in the Northern Guinea Savanna ecological zone with natural vegetation consisting of Hyparrhenia, Riparia spp and Andropogon as grasses, and scattered Tamarindus indica, Parkia clapertoria and Khaya senegalensis as the dominant trees. Some of the commonly cultivated agricultural crops are millet (Pennisetum typhoideum Rich), guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). = = =Field Studies= <p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Based on a reconnaissance survey using topographic and land-use approaches (free survey method), initially 36 sites were augured randomly to establish the kinds of soils in the area.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Subsequently, four soil units were identified as Unit 1 – Crest, Unit-2 Middle slope, Unit 3 – Lower slope and Unit 4 – Valley floor, One profile (pedon) pit was dug in each unit except the Unit 2- Middle slope where two pits (Middle slope –1 and Middle slope –2) were dug. Each profile was described according to the procedures outlined by the Soil Survey Staff (2002). A composite soil sample was collected from each recognizable pedogenic horizon in each profile. = = =Laboratory Studies= <p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">The soil samples were air- dried, crushed with a pestle and mortar and passed through a 2 – mm sieve. A 20g sub-sample of each was finely (<0.5mm,) ground and stored in a polythene bag for the estimation of organic carbon and total nitrogen. Each soil sample was analysed for various parameters included in Tables 2 to 4 using the methods as described by Page ''et al. (1982). ''

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Briefly, the particle – size distribution was determined by the Bouyoucos hydrometer method and bulk density by the clod method; the latter was used to calculate the porosity assuming the particle density to be equal to 2.65Mgm-3. Soil pH (in 1:1 soil: water and 1:2 soil: CaCl2solution) was determined potentiometrically. The electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil: water suspension was determined using a conductivity meter and the value multiplied by a conversion factor of 6.4 to obtain the EC of saturation extract as suggested by Landon (1991). Organic carbon and total nitrogen were respectively determined by the Walkley – Black wet combustion and macro-Kjeldahl digestion–distillation method. Bray No. 1 method was employed for the estimation of available phosphorus. Exchange acidity was estimated by the extraction with 1m KCI solution. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by the NH4- saturation method using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer; the values were used to calculate percentage base saturation. The cation exchange capacity of the minerals clay colloids was estimated by the equation:

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">CEC (clay) = CEC (soil) – 3.5x%OC X100

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">% Clay

<p style="margin: 0cm -0.9pt 0.0001pt 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">Where, CEC = Cation exchange capacity in cmol (+) kg-1soil determined at pH 7.0, and OC = Organic carbon

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">This estimate is made on the assumption that 1% organic carbon accounts for an exchange capacity 3.5 cmol(+)kg-1soil as empirically determined for the savanna soils by Sombrock and Zonneveld (1971).

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
=Morphological Properties= ====Data on morphological features of the pedons are given in Table 1. The soils were deep to very deep, well-drained and sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the Ap horizon over a gravely sandy clay to clay subsurface horizons. This shows clearly the influence of parent materials especially in the surface horizons. The soil colour ranged from brown (75YR 5/3) to very pale brown (10YR 7/3) in the Ap horizons over yellowish red (5YR 4/8) to brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) subsurface horizons with moderate medium sub-angular blocky peds of friable to ====

====very friable consistencies Frequently, quartz grains were seen. Presence of a few ant and termite holes as well as nests indicated limited faunal pedoturbation within the soils. Pedon 5 (valley floor) had many nodules (10YR 8/1) of Fe and Mn with petroplinthic clay in the sub-soils which were also mottles. ====

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Generally, there was an evidence of clay depletion in the surface horizons (Table 2). The lessivation appeared to have been promoted in these soils by the planar topography which enhances infiltration and consequently the effective rainfall. Pedon 1 showed the evidence of moderate drainage due to either accumulation of kaolinite or silty parent materials as shown by the high proportion of silt in this pedon (Table 2). There was a distinct disappearance of vegetative cover in the area. This may be due to kaolinite mining in the area which gives this unit (Pedon 1) a distinct local micro-relief and the land was left barren. = = =Physico-chemical Properties= =Physical properties= =Data in Table 2 show that with the exceptions of the horizons of lithologic discontinuity in Pedons 1 and 2 and B2v horizon of Pedon 4, sand was the dominant fine earth fraction in the soils indicating that the sandstone dominated the shale in the mixed parent materials. In pedon 1, silt was the dominant fraction in the last two horizons; in fact, the silt content in this pedon was generally higher than in the remaining pedons possibly due to higher content of shale as parent material. The higher clay content in the lowest horizons of pedons 2 and 4 as well as in all the sub-surface horizons of Pedons 5 may be attributed to clay lessivation and toposequential effect of the landscape more specifically in pedon 5, the Valley floor. These observations show a strong texture – parent material relationship and confirm the finding of Akamigbo and Asadu (1983) that the parent material dominates over climate as determinant of soil texture. The Ap horizon texture was sandy loam in the crest and middle slope positions and sandy clay loam in the lower slope position and valley floor. The texture in the sub-surface was variable except in pedon 5 (valley floor) where it was distinct clay (Table 2) indicating its accumulation through clay lessivation. There was general clay depletion in the Ap horizons as was observed by others before (Ojanuga and Awujoola 1981; Esu and Ojanuga 1985; Ojanuga 1995) working with the soils derived from sandstone parent materials. Such a depletion of clay in the upper layers may be attributed to the biological sorting of soil materials, clay migration and erosion (Ojanuga and Awujoola 1981). =

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Data in Table 2 further show that with exceptions in the Ap horizons of Pedons 4 and 5 and Bt1 horizon of Pedon 4, the silt: clay ratio was higher than the 0.15 limit reported by Van Wambeke (1962) to represent old parent materials. This indicates that the soil parent materials are old. The Weathering index silt: (silt+clay) was calculated to assess the degree of weatherability of silt and clay size particles in the soils. Young (1976) quoted that a ratio of <0.5 indicates less weathering. With this limit and the data on silt: (silt + clay) in Table 2 in view, it may be argued that the soils in the study area are highly weathered especially Pedons 1 – 3 (crest and middle slopes). While the lower slope and valley floor are less weathered as a result of fresh frequent materials deposit. It also depicts the consequence of interfluves on the soil units.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Bulk density values given in Table 2 show an appreciable variation among and within the soils units pointing to the differences in mineralogy, clay content and structural development. The values ranged from 0.87Mgm-3to 1.53Mgm-3in the Ap horizons and 1.12 to 1.94Mgm3in the subsurface horizons. A relatively high bulk density recorded at the zone of lithologic discontinuities in some pedons may be related to a decrease in the pore space (Table 2) and possible concentration of iron oxide minerals into a gravelly layer. Good plant growth is obtained with bulk density below 1.4Mgm3for clay soils and 1.6Mgm3for sands (Donahue et al 1990). Further, a bulk density between 1.7 and 1.8 Mgm3for sandy soils and between 1.45 and 1.65Mgm3for clayey soils have been shown to inhibit root growth (Veighmeyer and Hendrickson 1948). With the Ap horizon bulk density <1.53Mgm3, the surface soils of the study area do not appear to offer any resistance to root penetration or growth. With the 0.42 – 0.67m-3m-3porosity in the surface horizons, the soils appear to be favourable for good aeration, root penetration and free water movement. The porosity decreased gradually with depth to a value ³ 0.27m-3m-3owing to poor structure development in the subsurface horizons, e.g. in Pedons 2. Donahue et al. (1990) advocated that a porosity <0.4m-3m-3may affect root growth adversely.

Chemical properties
<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Data in Table 3 indicate that the soils were generally very strongly acidic with pH ranging from 4.1 to 5.9 in H2O and 5.3 in CaCl2. The negative pH (pH (CaCl2) – pH (H2O)) values in Table 3 indicate that the soils contain positively charged minerals as suggested by Uehara and Gillman (1981). In the study area, the variable charge mineral may be dominantly kaolinite as it is mined locally. The high Al3+content in the soils (Table 4) suggest that they contain some amount of reserve acidity.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">The average saturation extract electrical conductivity of 0.59 dSm-1in Ap horizons and 0.43 dSm-1in sub-soils (Table 3) together with <2% exchangeable sodium percent (ESP) suggest that the salinazation and sodication are not significant pedogenic processes and also calcification because of the acidic soil reaction (pH <6.0). Raji et al (1999) while working with the sand dunes, reported that calcification is not a major pedogenic process in the soils with pH <6.5. These results tend to suggest that a rainfall of about 882 mm/annum, an ustic moisture regime and high soil macroporosity prevalent in the study area are not conducive to salt accumulation in the soils (Table 4). In this regards, Buol et al. (1980) reported that a rainfall of about 760mm was just adequate for the leaching of bases in some Australian soils.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">The data in Table 3 further show that the organic carbon content in all the pedons decreased irregularly with depth and was very low with the values being < 10.0gkg-1in the Ap horizons and 0.2 – 1.2 (mean 0.6) gkg-1in the subsurface horizons. Available phosphorus content ranged from low (1.3mgkg-1) to high (28.2mgkg-1) with an irregular pattern of vertical distribution. Farmers do apply phosphatic fertilizers in the area which might have been responsible for exceptionally high available P values (>20mgkg-1) in some horizons (Table 3). The inherently low contents of organic matter mineralization, sparse natural vegetation inadequate return of crop residues, bush burning and short fallow period are associated with the low levels of available phosphorus and organic carbon.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Data in Table 4 show that the contents of exchangeable bases in the soils were quite low with the means (in cmol(+) kg –1) of 0.20 Ca, 0.19Mg, 0.20K and 0.10 Na; their magnitudes followed the order K>Ca>Mg>Na. This is contrary to the past findings that Ca and Mg are the dominant bases in the Nigerian savanna soils (Jones and Wild 1975, Ogunwale et al 1975). It may be attributed to leaching losses of the bases and K- rich parent materials from which the soils mighty have developed. Further, it is evident from the data in Table 4 that the CEC values were low in pedon 2 (4.4 to 7.5cmol (+) kg-1soil) up to the litholitic zone. In the other pedons, it varied from 7.2 (medium) to 27.6 (high) cmol (+) kg-1soil). Low CEC values have been reported for the savanna soils in the past (Ogunwale et al 1975; Ojanuga, 1979). They attributed the low CEC values to low organic matter content and a variable charge nature of the clay minerals. The clay CEC data in Table 4 suggest that its values generally increased with depth in Pedons 1, 2 and 3; the vertical distribution was irregular in Pedons 4 and 5. Further, with a few exceptions most notably the horizons above 2Cv of Pedons, the clay CEC values were >35 cmol kg-1indicating the presence of 2:1 layer silicate clay minerals besides kaolinite and Fe-oxyhydroxide as argued by Somebroek and Zonneveld (1971). Neoformation is most probable in the lower horizons as a result of downward leaching of the bases and likely better moisture condition at depth.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Exchangeable cations are part of the components of effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) and organic matter accounts for at least half of the CEC of surface soils (Agboola and Corey 1973). Sanchez (1976) advocated that any soil which has <4cmol (+) kg-1 ECEC is less productive. The soils from all pedons possessed low ECEC within the range 1.18-2.80cmol (+) kg-1. Their base saturation ranged from 2 to 14% (mean 6%) indicating their low native productivity.

Soil Classification
<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">As mentioned earlier, the soils of Gwaram in Alkaleri probably had an ustic soil moisture and isohyperthermic soil temperature regimes. The soils of pedons 2,3,4 and 5 have argillic horizons as confirmed by the presence of clay skins in Bt horizons (Table 1) and of clay bulges observed in the area, and have base saturation <50% (by neutral NH4Oc extraction) which is considered equivalent to being <35% by the summation of cations (Sanchez, 1976). These soils may, therefore, be placed into the Order Ultisols of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

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<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Owing to the ustic soil moisture regime, the soils are further classified into the Suborder Ustults. The soils of pedons 2, 3 and 4 are also thick reddish Ustults lacking plinthite that forms a continuous phase or constitutes more than half the matrix in any sub-horizon within 1.25m of the surface, They have argillic horizons in which the clay content does not decrease by as much as 20% from its maximum value within the depth of 150cm from the surface. These soils are, therefore, classified as Orthic Paleustults at the Great Group Level. These soils have control sections which are composed of more than 15% (by weight) of fine sand and more than 35% but less than 60% clay; thus, they are classified into the fine loamy particle–size class. Kaolinite constitutes more than half of the clay fraction in the soil units; therefore, they are classified at the Family level as Orthic Paleustults fine loamy kaolinitic, isohyperthermic. Pedon 5 (valley floor) has petroplinthite forming continuous layers within 150 cm depth and is classified at the Great Group level as Aquic plinthic Haplustult clayey, isohyperthermic. The Pedon1 was classified as Aquic Haplustult fine loamy kaolinitic, isomesic. The corresponding FAO/UNESCO (1988) classification is Orthic Acrisols for pedons 2, 3 and 4. Pedon 5 (valley floor) can be placed as Plinithic Acrisols and pedon 1 as Gleyic Acrisol.

Agricultural Potential of the Soils
<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">Some good attributes of the soils under study coupled with fairly distributed available phosphorus status and friable consistency would pose no problems to tillage operation. They have good structure for adequate aeration, root penetration and free water movement.

<p style="margin-right: -0.9pt; text-align: justify;">However, the problems peculiar to the study area appear to be low organic matter content, high exchangeable aluminium which may cause phosphorus fixation, low CEC, deficiency of macro-nutrients especially N, Ca and Mg contents. The use of organic manures together with available inorganic fertilizers is therefore advocated for peasant farmers in the area.

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{| border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; margin-left: 22.65pt; border-collapse: collapse;"
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Horizon (cm) (Moist)

 * - style="height: 198.05pt;"
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EB 9-32 10YR 6/3 scl 1mgr mvfr gs Many fibrous roots, macropores
Btl 32-70 10YR 6/8 scl 1mcr mvfr gs Few coarse and fibrous roots, common macropores

Bt2 70-97 7.5YR7/8 scl 2mcr mvfr gs Very few fibrous roots, a few macropores

<p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; line-height: normal;">B2v 97-168+ 2.5YR 4/8 c 3 csbk mfi cs Macropores, a few animal activities, common medium Fe/Mn nodules

Pedon 5: Valley Floor

Ap 0-11 7.5YR 5/3 sc 1fcr mfr gs A few medium krotorians activities, common fibrous roots, mircropores

Btl 11-33 7.5 YR4/6 c 2 fcr mfr gs Macropores, many fibrous roots with few coarse roots

Bt2 33-100 5YR 6/7*5YR 5/1 c 3 csbk mfi gs Few very fine roots many pores many Fe/ Mn nodules

2Btv 100-180+ 7.5 YR5/6 * 10YR 8/1 c 3mabk mfr cs Clay skin, many medium pores. many nodules petroplinthite below


 * }


 * Symbols as in soil survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff 2002)* Mottle Colour

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">Table 2 some physical properties of the pedons­­­­­­­­­­­­

<p style="margin-left: 72pt;">Depth Soil separate Si:C Si(Si+C) BD Porosity <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">Horizon (cm) Sand Silt Clay Texture ratio ratio (Mgm-3) (M-3m-3)

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 61 25 14 sl 0.79 0.64 1.53 0.42

Bs 5-10 60 13 22 sl 0.82 0.45 1.16 0.56

2Btx 16-54 50 24 20 sl 0.92 0.48 1.28 0.52

2CB 54-110 36 56 03 sl 7.00 0.88 1.52 0.43

3C2g 110-150+32 60 08 sl 7.50 0.88 1.60 0.40

Pedon 2: Middle Slope-1

Ap 0-15 70 17 12 sl 1.42 0.59 0.87 0.67

BA 15-38 59 23 18 sl 1.28 0.56 1.68 0.37

Btl 38-90 63 19 18 sl 1.06 0.51 1.61 0.39

Bt2 90-110 41 27 32 scl 0.84 0.46 1.94 0.27

BCc 110-140 61 19 20 sl 0.95 0.49 1.51 0.43

2Cv 140-180 12 31 57 c 0.54 0.35 1.16 0.56

Pedon 3: Middle slope-2

Ap 0-18 65 18 17 sl 1.06 0.51 1.45 0.45

Btl 18-38 62 12 27 l 0.44 0.31 1.24 0.53

BA 38-62 63 18 19 sl 0.95 0.49 1.43 0.46

Btz 62-80 40 16 38 scl 0.42 0.30 1.30 0.51

Bt3 86-130 44 22 35 scl 0.63 0.39 0.46 0.45

C 130-200+67 24 09 sl 2.67 0.73 1.36 0.49

Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 70 01 29 scl 0.03 0.03 1.25 0.53

EB 9-32 66 05 29 scl 0.17 0.15 1.26 0.52

Btl 32-70 64 03 33 scl 0.09 0.08 1.32 0.50

Bt2 70-79 62 07 31 scl 0.23 0.18 1.12 0.58

B2v 97-168+ 28 13 59 c 0.22 0.18 1.14 0.57

Pedon 5: Valley floor

Ap 0-11 62 03 35 scl 0.09 0.08 1.42 0.48

Btl 11-33 36 23 41 c 0.56 0.36 1.35 0.49

Bt2 33-400 42 11 47 c 0.23 0.19 1.32 0.50

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">2Btv 100-180+38 13 49 c 0.27 0.21 1.85 0.30 sl = sandy loam, sil=silt loam, 1=loam, c=clay, scl=sandy clay loam, ls=loamy sand BD=bulk density

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

<p style="text-align: center;">TABLE 3: <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">Some chemical properties of the pedons­­­­­­­­­­­­

<p style="margin-left: 72pt;">Depth pH EC Organic C Total N Avail P <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">Horizon (cm) 1:1H2O CaCl2 dpH (dsm-1) (gkg-1) (gkg-1) (mgkg-1)

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 4.4 4.3 + 0.1 0.74 74 0.7 28.2

Bs 5-16 5.1 4.2 + 0.9 0.52 2.0 1.0 12.1

2Btx 16-54 4.2 4.0 + 0.2 0.54 4.8 0.7 4.2

2CB 54-110 4.3 4.0 + 0.3 0.43 2.4 1.0 8.9

3C2g 110-150+4.5 3.8 + 0.7 0.41 1.2 0.9 4.2

Pedon 2: Middle Slope-1

Ap 0-15 5.9 5.3 + 0.6 0.74 3.4 35 8.2

BA 15-38 5.4 4.2 + 1.2 0.55 3.8 0.3 2.1

Btl 38-90 5.3 4.4 + 0.9 0.46 2.0 0.6 1.8

Bt2 90-110 5.1 4.3 + 0.8 0.51 2.0 0.2 1.3

BCc 110-140 5.2 4.5 + 0.7 0.53 1.8 0.3 5.6

2Cv 140-180 5.3 4.6 + 0.7 0.42 1.8 1.6 29.4

Pedon 3: Middle slope-2

Ap 0-18 4.6 3.8 + 0.8 0.42 3.6 1.0 2.8

Btl 18-38 4.9 3.9 + 10 0.46 2.5 0.7 18.2

BA 38-62 4.9 4.0 + 0.9 0.53 3.0 1.0 23.8

Bt2 62-86 4.8 4.0 + 0.8 0.47 0.42 1.2 3.4

Bt3 86-130 4.6 3.9 + 0.7 0.45 1.8 0.9 7.0

C 130-200+45 3.9 + 06 0.48 1.6 1.2 11.2

Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 5.3 4.6 + 0.7 0.53 4.2 0.4 3.2

EB 9-32 5.1 4.2 + 0.9 0.51 1.6 0.2 70

Btl 32-70 5.0 4.4 + 0.6 0.46 1.4 0.2 42

Bt2 70-79 5.3 4.5 + 0.8 0.56 0.8 0.3 28

B2v 97-168+ 4.1 3.8 + 0.3 0.52 1.8 0.7 26.8

Pedon 5: Valley floor

Ap 0-11 5.0 4.3 + 0.7 0.54 3.0 0.6 82

Btl 11-33 4.9 4.1 + 0.8 0.45 2.0 0.7 16.8

Bt2 33-400 5.1 4.2 + 0.9 0.47 20 07 8.4

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">2Btv 100-180+5.2 42 + 1.0 0.55 1.6 04 5.6 pH=+ with(pH H20-pHCaCl2) EC=electrical conductivity of saturation extract =-with (pH CaCl2-pH H20)

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">Table 4 Exchange properties of the pedons­­­­­­­­­­­­

<p style="margin-left: 72pt;">Depth Exchangeable (cmol(+)kg-1) EA Al CEC ECEC(cmol(+)kg1 Base saturation (%) <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">Horizon (cm) Ca Mg K Na (cmol(+)kg1) (cmol(+)kg1) Soil Clay Soil Clay CEC ECEC

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 0.15 0.27 0.35 0.11 0.88 0.72 7.2 37.2 1.77 * 11 50

Bs 5-16 0.30 0.27 0.12 0.09 1.66 1.50 11.2 47.7 2.44 7.91 7 22

2Btv 16.54 0.17 0.09 0.08 0.14 0.70 0.26 22.8 81.2 1.18 * 2 41

2CB 54.110 0.29 0.09 0.42 0.15 0.54 0.54 24.4 294.3 1.49 8.13 4 64

3C2g 110-150+ 0.31 0.09 0.10 0.06 2.22 1.48 27.4 337.3 2.80 29.75 2 21

Pedon 2: Middle slope-1

Ap 0.15 0.11 0.23 0.17 0.09 1.70 1.28 4.4 26.8 2.30 9.25 14 26

BA 15.38 0.11 0.25 0.08 0.08 1.44 1.08 4.6 38.2 1.98 3.61 12 27

Btl 38.90 0.15 0.21 0.16 0.02 1.18 0.52 5.0 23.9 1.72 5.67 11 31

Bt2 90-110 0.12 0.29 0.06 0.10 0.94 0.66 8.1 23.1 1.51 2.53 7 38

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;">BCc 110-140 0.22 0.34 0.23 0.10 1.40 0.96 7.5 34.4 2.29 8.30 12 38

2Cv 140-180 0.20 0.33 0.11 0.09 1.22 1.00 27.0 46.3 1.95 2.23 3 37

Pedon 3: Middle slope-2

Ap 0-18 0.18 0.12 0.27 0.11 1.06 1.06 6.4 30.2 1.74 2.82 11 39

Bt1 18-38 0.30 0.09 0.04 0.09 1.00 0.76 15.2 52.9 1.88 3.59 6 47

BA 38-62 0.30 0.08 0.31 0.08 0.80 0.78 16.8 82.9 1.57 2.74 5 71

Bt2 62-86 016 0.29 0.30 0.16 1.42 1.06 17.2 43.1 2.33 3.92 5 39

Bt3 86-130 0.03 0.24 0.08 0.06 1.32 1.16 20.2 55.9 2.02 3.97 3 35

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">C 130-200+0.11 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.92 0.52 22.6 244.9 1.46 10.00 2 37
 * =Values were negative

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

TABLE 4 (Continued)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

<p style="margin-left: 72pt;">Depth Exchangeable (cmol(+)kg-1) EA Al CEC ECEC cmol(+)kg1 Base saturation (%) <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">Horizon (cm) Ca Mg K Na cmol(+)kg1 Soil Clay Soil Clay CEC ECEC

Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 0.12 0.22 0.19 0.11 1.60 1.20 17.4 54.9 2.24 2.66 4 29

EB 9-32 0.12 0.12 0.24 0.07 1.04 0.96 11.6 38.1 1.59 3.55 5 35

Bt1 32-70 0.12 0.11 0.29 0.10 0.16 1.04 19.6 57.9 1.78 3.91 3 35

Bt2 70-97 0.26 0.13 0.26 0.11 1.34 0.54 24.4 294.3 1.49 8.13 4 64

B2v 97-168+ 0.23 0.11 0.13 0.12 1.74 1.34 27.6 45.7 2.33 2.88 2 25

Pedon 5: Valley floor

Ap 0.11 0.25 0.15 0.28 0.07 1.72 0.70 19.0 51.3 1.47 1.20 4 51

Btl 11-33 0.12 0.15 0.05 0.08 1.76 0.54 25.6 60.7 2.16 3.56 2 19

Bt2 33-100 0.15 0.29 0.32 0.12 1.28 1.04 13.6 27.0 2.16 2.66 10 41

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm;">2Btv 100-180+0.18 0.29 0.14 0.13 1.14 1.08 21.4 42.5 1.88 2.69 7 39 EA = Exchange acidity (Al3++H+), Al3+= Aluminium concentration, CEC = Cation exchange capacity, ECEC = Effective CEC

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 13/04/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 15/05/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

hassanam2002@yahoo.com

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PHOSPHORUS ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF MAIZE (Zea mays l.) IN OFERE (BASEMENT COMPLEX) SOILS KOGI STATE, NORTH CENTRAL ECOLOGICAL ZONE, NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O1 Oyewole, C.I2 and Isitekhale, H.H3

<p style="text-align: center;">1Department of Soil and Environmental Management, 2Department of Crop Production Kogi State University, Anyigba, 3Department of Soil Science, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">In southern guinea savanna of Nigeria, where ofere belongs, the soils are inherently low in P because of the dry nature of the climate, low vegetation cover and generally sandy nature of the soil, whose clay mineralogy is dominated by inactive kaolinite materials. This study was undertaken in Ofere, Kogi State, Nigeria to investigate the response of maize crop to addition of varying rates of phosphorus. The trial, a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) involves seven rates of P (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120kg/ha) applied as single super phosphate (SSP) for P calibration. The soils of the area were analyzed for physical and chemical properties prior to imposition of treatment. In the field calibration studies, optimum maize grain yield of 3.93 and 4.86 ton/ha were obtained for 2007 and 2008 cropping season, respectively from the application of 120kg P/ha. Application of 120kg P/ha is therefore recommended for maize production in soils of Ofere, Kogi State of Nigeria.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEY WORDS: Basement Complex, phosphorus, cropping system, calibration.

INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Phosphorus is one of the major elements and it is second in importance to nitrogen in terms of nutrient requirement for increased crop production in most tropical soils. The beneficial effect of phosphorus fertilizer application had been widely documented (Nguu, 1987; Ragi et al., 2001). It is generally recognized as one of the major elements essential to the well being of all plants with its deficiency constituting a serious limitation to crop production in most weathered soils with high Fe and Al oxides that quickly fix added P (Uyovbisere, 1994). It is a major constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids and is considered to be especially importance in stimulating early growth in the development of reproductive parts and vigorous root systems of all higher plants. Although, phosphorus occurs in most plants in much smaller quantities than other two major nutrient elements, N and K, it is widely used in the fertilization of agricultural crops because most cultivated soils cannot meet the demand of rapidly growing annual crops (Prictchett, 1978)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Previous studies had shown that soils deficient in P and having high P-fixing capacity, irrespective of soil P, responded to P rates and liming (NRCRI, 1977). Buckman and Brady (1969) after considering the significant avenue of P loss concluded that P problems are due to the following: (i) low total amount in soils. (ii) unavailable native P and (iii) retention of added P, which subsequently leads to inefficient P-utilization. Plants suffering from phosphorus deficiency are retarded in growth and the shoot/root dry matter ratio is usually low. In cereal, tillering is affected, fruit trees show reduced growth rates of new shoot and frequently the development and the opening of buds is unsatisfactory. There is premature leaf fall, purple or red anthomyacin pigmentation and the development of dead necrotic areas on the w the deficiency symptoms before the young leaves (Mengel and Kirby, 1987; Bame, 1998; Ochi et al., 2002). Omoregie (1999) studied the effect of phosphorus application on verano Stylosanthus hema and Centrosema pascuorum under sub-humid conditions in Nigeria. He observed a significant effect on dry matter production and seed yield with increase in P application. He also observed that the application of 40 kgP/ha was best for optimum production of Centrosema pascuorum while 60 kgP/ha was best for the production for the legumes. In the savanna soils of Mokwa, Kogbe et al. (2003) reported that control plot (0 kg P2O5) gave the least yield of maize

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">when compared to other rates. A steady increase in grain yields to 3.5 ton/ha of the hybrid maize was obtained when up to 60kgP/ha was applied. An early trial with P fertilizer indicated that 11kgP/ha was the optimum rate of phosphate fertilization in the savanna zone of Nigeria. However, recent experiments had shown that improved grain varieties responded to 33 kgP/ha (Dougherty et al., 2004). The latest fertilizer recommendation is 21 kgP/ha (Elkased and Nnadi, 1987).

<p style="text-align: justify;">In southern guinea savanna of Nigeria, where ofere belongs, the soils are inherently low in P because of the dry nature of the climate, low vegetation cover and generally sandy nature of the soil, whose clay mineralogy is dominated by inactive kaolinite materials (Uyovbisere, 1994). It is consequently recognized that profitable cropping is only possible where soil fertility is adequately maintained (Lombin, 1987; Sinang, et al., 2002). With increasing pressure on soils of southern guinea savanna agro ecological zone, shifting cultivation is no longer sustainable and traditional bush fallow period for maintaining the productivity of the soil has become shorter; soils are no longer able to supply the quantity of nutrients required and as a result, yield level declines rapidly once cropping commences. Although phosphorus had been reported to be the most limiting nutrient to crop production in Northern Nigeria (Yusuf and Yusuf, 2008), however, there is scarcity of information as regards P status in soils of Ofere in the Guinea Savanna of Kogi State, Nigeria. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different levels of phosphorus fertilizer on the growth and yield of maize in soils of Ofere.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location of Study Areas

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ofere lies between longitude 70 251 to 50 461 N and latitude 70 461 and 50 441 east of the equator and their main occupation is farming. It has a bimodal rainfall with the peak pattern occurring in July and September with a mean annual rainfall of 132.00 mm. Rainfall is distributed from March to November with most rains in occurring in July and again in September and October. The dry season generally extends from November to March. During this period, rainfall drops drastically to less than 12.00 mm in any of the months. Temperature shows some variation throughout the year with average monthly temperature varying from 17 0C to 33.3 0C. Relative humidity is moderately high and varies from an average of 65 - 85% for most part of the year. The main vegetation is the forest savanna mosaic zone. The geology of the area is Basement complex Soils. Composite surface soil samples (0 - 15 cm), were collected from pre-classified sites (FDALR, 1985) for soil analysis. The soil samples were air dried, crushed with the aid of wooden roller and sieved through 2 mm sieve then stored in sealed plastic container for subsequent use. Particle size was determined by hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Soil pH was measured in a soil: water ratio of 1:1 with the aid of glass electrode pH meter (Maclean, 1982). Organic matter was determined by wet dichromate acid oxidation method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) were extracted with 1N NH4OAC buffered at pH 7 (Thomas, 1982). Ca and Mg was determined using atomic absorption spectro photometer, while K and Na were read on flame photometer. Exchange acidity was extracted with 1N KCL (Thomas, 1982) and determined by titration with 0.05N NaOH using phenolphthalein as indicator. Nitrogen was determined by Macro Kjedahl method (Bremmer and Mulvany, 1982). Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was calculated by the summation exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) and exchange acidity (Carter, 1993). Extractable micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Zn and Cu) were determined by double acid method. Total phosphorus was determined by per-chloric acid (HCLO4) digestion method (Murphy and Riley, 1962). Organic phosphorus was determined by ignition method (Legg and Black, 1955). Available P was estimated by Bray P-1 (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) (Table 1).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Field Calibration Studies:

<p style="text-align: justify;">The field experiments spanned two years: 2007 and 2008 cropping season. The experiments were conducted using randomized complete block design with three replications (RCB). The experimental plot size used was 3.00 m x 1.75 (5.25 m2) and the entire experimental area was 15.25 m x 11 m (167.75 m2). Maize variety, Downey mildew resistant (DMRT) from IAR&T Ibadan was used for the experiment and the spacing adopted was 75 cm by 25 cm. This was manually planted (three seeds per hole) at 3 - 5cm depths. The seedlings were thinned down to one plant per stand two weeks after crop emergence. There were a total of 28 stands of maize plants in each plot, 196 stands in a block giving a plant population of 588 plants on the entire experimental site. Seven different levels of single super phosphate (SSP) fertilizer were applied at the following rates 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha coded P0, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, respectively. Nitrogen and potassium were below critical levels; hence urea and muriate of potassium

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">were used to raise them above the critical levels before planting was done. The fertilizers were mixed properly and applied banded on one side of the maize seeds using groove of 10 cm wide and 10 cm deep and 8 cm away from the seeds. The experimental plots were manually weeded by hoeing and by hand weeding as required. Before planting in the fields, composite surface soil samples were collected from each the experimental sites and analyzed for their physico-chemical properties. The following agronomic traits, number of leaves, plant height, stem girth, leaf area were measured at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 weeks after planting. For the yield, only 4 plants at the two middle rows were harvested from the 28 plants in each plot to eliminate the effects of cross feeding and yield was computed per hectare based on the area of the harvested cobs. The harvested cobs were de-husked, weighed, threshed weighed again and the grain yield adjusted to 13% moisture content. Maize agronomic traits and yields were subjected to statistical analysis. Mean comparisons were carried out using least significant differences (LSD) test only when F- value was significant.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Analyzed results showed that except in 2007 where phosphorus application had no significant effect on maize height at 2WAP it significantly influenced plant height at other times of data collection: 4, 6, 8 and 10WAP for 2007 and at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10WAP in 2008. Maize crop significantly increased in height over the control with increase in P application (Table 2a). In 2007 at 4WAP, only the application of 20 KgP/ha increased plant height significantly when compared to the control. At 6, 8 and 10WAP, application of phosphorus resulted in plant heights that were significantly taller than the control. Application of 120 kgP/ha gave the highest plant height of 161.67 cm and 174.33 cm at 6 and 8 WAP, respectively when compared to 62.83 and 96.33cm obtained from the controls. But at 10WAP, the application of 100 KgP/ha gave the highest maize plant height of 198.15 cm in comparison to 124.33 cm obtained from the control. In 2008, the trend was generally different when compared to the results obtained in 2007 (Table 2b). At 2WAP and 4WAP, the effect of phosphorus fertilizer application on maize plant height showed similar trend. The application of 20 and 120 KgP/ha significantly gave the highest maize plant height of 44.73 and 76.83 cm when compared to 25.50 and 45.83 cm obtained from the control in 2 and 4WAP, respectively. The trends at 6, 8 and 10WAP were generally different. At 6WAP, though all the fertilizer levels gave higher maize plant height when compared to the control, the application of 120 KgP/ha was significantly better than mean maize plant height obtained from the application of 20, 40 KgP/ha and the control. Application of 120 KgP/ha gave the highest mean maize plant height of 91.33 cm when compared to 56.50 cm obtained from the control. At 8 and 10 WAP, application of 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha significantly gave higher maize plant height when compared to the control. The highest mean plant height of 105.50 cm and 119.17 cm were obtained from the application of 80 and 120 kgP/ha relative to 67.50 and 73.17 obtained from the control in 8 and 10WAP, respectively

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">The mean maize leaf area was significantly affected by phosphorus fertilizer application in 2007 (Table 2b). At 2WAP, application of 120kgP/ha significantly gave the highest maize leaf area of 1335.96 cm when compared to 657.60 cm obtained from the control (Table2b). However, the lowest leaf area was obtained from the application of 60 kgP/ha. At 4 and 6WAP the application of 120 kgP/ha significantly enhanced leaf area, it gave leaf area of 4429.16 and 4969.18 cm2 when compared to the lowest leaf area of 780.24 and 809.24 cm2obtained from the controls. At 8WAP, application of all levels of P fertilizer except 20 and 40 kgP/ha significantly gave higher maize leaf area when compared to the control. The highest leaf area of 5394.52 cm2 was obtained from the application of 120kgP/ha. At 10WAP, similar trend was observed.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">In 2008, application of 120 kgP/ha gave the highest leaf area at 2, 4 and 6WAP; it gave 1458.84, 1489.62 and 4633.22 cm2, respectively (Table 2b). However, at 2WAP, application of 60 kgP/ha gave significantly lower maize leaf area when compared to the control. At 8 and 10WAP, the trend was different, application of 100 kg/ha gave the highest leaf area of 4121.18 and 4592.08 cm2when compared to 1446.68 and 1690.80 cm2that what were obtained from the control. In 2007, maize stem girth was generally significantly better than the control in all the weeks after planting (Table 3a). At 2WAP, maize stem girth was significantly higher than the control with all the levels of P fertilizer application except with 20 and 40 kgP/ha. But at 4WAP, 80 and 120 kgP/ha gave the highest stem girth of 6.00 and 6.67 cm when compared to 4.00 cm obtained from the control. At 6WAP, the result obtained showed similar trend from what was obtained at 2WAP and was only significantly different from 20, 40 kgP/ha and the control, respectively. At 8 and 10WAP the effects of the application of 60, 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha on maize stem girth was not significantly different from one another but different from that obtained from the control. The

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">application of 120KgP/ha gave the highest stem girth in all the weeks after planting. The application of 120 KgP/ha in soils, in all the weeks after planting gave the highest maize stem girth (Table 3a) in 2008. At 2WAP, the application of 60, 100 and 120 kgP/ha resulted in significant high stem girth when compared to what was obtained from the control and what were obtained from the application of 20, and 40 KgP/ha. But at 4WAP, all P fertilizer applications resulted in higher stem girths that were higher than the control. Similar trends were observed at 6, 8 and 10WAP, respectively.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">In 2007, all P treatments effects on number of leaves at 2WAP were generally better than the control (Table 3b). At 4WAP, the application of 20, 40 and 120 kgP/ha significantly gave higher number of leaves of 8.00, 7.83 and 8.00 cm when compared to 6.00 cm obtained from the control. At 6, 8 and 10WAP, application of P resulted in number of leaves that were significantly better than the control. The highest numbers of leaves of 10.33 and 11.67cm were obtained from the application of 100 to 120 kgP/ha and 60kgP/ha in 6 and 8WAP, respectively while at 10WAP, all the rates of phosphorus application gave numbers of leaves that were better than that obtained from the control. In 2008, the effect of applied phosphorus in Ofere soils on number of leaves did not show any definite trend at 2WAP (Table 3b). Application of 40 KgP/ha resulted in the highest number of leaves when compared to the control. At 4 and 6WAP, maize responses to P fertilizer in terms of number of leaves was highest when 120 kgP/ha was applied. At 8 and 10WAP, the trends were similar in all the levels of P application. The highest number of leaves were obtained from the application of 120 and 100 kgP/ha and both were not significantly different from each other.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">In 2007 cropping season, the highest cob weight of 4.68 ton/ha was obtained from the application of 100 and 120 kgP/ha, these were not significantly different from what resulted from the application of 60 and 80 kgP/ha, respectively. Optimum maize grain yield of 3.93ton/ha was obtained from the application of 120kgP/ha (Table 4). In 2008, the highest cob weight of 6.09 ton/ha was also obtained from the application of 120 kgP/ha. Optimum grain yield of 4.86 ton/ha was obtained from the application of 120 kgP/ha. Relative yields of 22.7% and 29.5% were obtained for 2007 and 2008 in Ofere location, respectively (Table 4). These findings were in agreement with what Kogbe and Adediran (2003) reported. They earlier reported a steady increase in grain yields of maize as P application increases. They obtained grain yield of 3.50 ton/ha from the application of 60 kgP/ha. However, they laid emphasis on P and N application. These findings were at variance with what was reported by some other workers, who suggested lower levels of P application (Irving, 1956., Elkased and Nnadi, 1987). Enwezor (1979) had earlier criticized the low P application recommended by Irving (1956) and Igbokwe et al (1981) and questioned the validity of the general P fertilizer application of less than 18kgP/ha.

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of soils used for study

Table 2a: Effect of phosphorus application on maize plant height (cm2) in Soils of Ofere

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">2007 2008

<p style="text-align: justify;">Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

<p style="margin-left: -18pt;">Table 2b: Effect of phosphorus application on maize leaf area (cm2) in Soils of Ofere <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">2007 2008 <p style="text-align: justify;">Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

Table 3a Effect of phosphorus application on maize stem (cm2) girth in soils of Ofere

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">2007 2008 <p style="text-align: justify;">Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

3b: Effect of phosphorus application on maize number of leaves in soils of Ofere

<p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">2007 2008

<p style="text-align: justify;">Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of probability

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 4: Effect of Phosphorus on cob weight and grain yield (ton/ha) in soils of Ofere

<p style="text-align: justify;">2007 2008 <p style="text-align: justify;">LSD 0.97 0.93 2.25 1.04

<p style="text-align: justify;">Relative yield = 22.7% Relative yield = 22.50%

<p style="text-align: justify;">Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter(s) are not significantly different at 5% of level of probability.

<p style="text-align: center;">Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 08/05/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 15/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Amhakhian,S. O

Department of Soil and Environmental Management, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 29 - 37, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">WATER, ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH: IMPLICATIONS ON CASSAVA PRODUCTION.

<p style="text-align: center;">Omonona, B.T1 and Akinpelu, A.O2

<p style="text-align: center;">1Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, OyoState. 2National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Private Mail Bag 7006,Umuahia, Abia State.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The paper examines the implications of water, environment and health on cassava production. It was observed that although, cassava is a drought- tolerant crop, growth and yield are decreased by prolonged dry periods. The critical period of water deficit effect in cassava is from 1-5 Month After Planting (the stages of root initiation and tuberization). Also, cassava processing can have negative, mainly site-specific effects on the environment, by producing unpleasant odours and an unsightly display of waste. Consumption of cassava and cassava products containing large amounts of cyanide can cause acute intoxication, with symptoms of dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhoea and sometimes death. Policies and institutions must be developed and cost-effective management practices adopted to halt the environmental degradation caused by overexploitation of groundwater resources. Processors or intending cassava processors should make adequate arrangement for proper disposal of effluents and other waste from cassava. Cyanide poisoning can be prevented through educating farmers and consumers of cassava and cassava products on the need to extend fermentation period of cassava.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: water, environment, health, cyanide poisoning, death, drought tolerant, fermentation

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Agriculture produces the necessary food for the world’s populations under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. In a wider perspective, agriculture is not only the main consumer of water but also a critical factor shaping important terrestrial and freshwater biomes that form part of necessary life-supporting eco- system services (Appelgren and Klohn, 2001). Agriculture represents the first traditional life-supporting economic sector closely linked to established cultural and ethical values of land and water on which traditional societies are built (Appelgren, 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Agriculture is the activity most essential for human survival. It feeds people, produces basic commodities for society and provides gainful employment for the majority (Ojemade, 2007). Agricultural demands represent actual current use of rainfall, soil moisture and flowing waters for agricultural production. This is different from generally planned demands and an enormous, rapidly growing investment gap for water supplies, sometimes referred to as the water supply paradox (Appelgren, 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Based on the standard hydrological index of water scarcity it is concluded that by 2025 one-third of the world’s population will live in water scarce countries. The water scarce countries include many of the least developed countries with limited social resources but also more wealthy economies with the necessary capacity for investments and social adaptation to water scarcity (Appelgren, 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Agriculture is the largest user of water in the world and alters, depletes, contaminates, and eutrophies water bodies—all of which have implications for human health. Water-associated infectious disease kill approximately 3.2 million people per year and a significant fraction can be traced back to agriculture-imposed changes in vector habitat and water quality (Nugent and Drescher, 2006).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has its origin in Latin America where it has been grown by the indigenous Indian population for at least 4000 years. After the discovery by the Americas, European traders took the crop to Africa as a potentially useful food crop; later it was also taken to Asia to be grown as a food security crop and for the extraction of starch. It is native to tropical America and was introduced to Africa by the Portuguese in the sixteen century (Okogbenin et al., 2006).

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<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Howeler, 2006 cassava belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It can compete with other, more valuable, crops such as maize, soybean and vegetables mainly in areas of acid and low-fertility soils, and those with low or unpredictable rainfall. It is a major source of carbohydrate and it is the third largest source of carbohydrate in the world with Africa being the largest centre of production.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava in the world (FAO,2007) and its cassava transformation is the most advanced in Africa (Egesi et al., 2006).Cassava is grown throughout the tropic and could be regarded as the most important root crop, in terms of area cultivated and total production (Ano,2003).It is a major food crop in Nigeria (Ogbe et al., 2007).It is strategically valued for its role in food security, poverty alleviation and as a source of raw materials for agro-allied industries in Nigeria with huge potential for the export market (Egesi et al., 2007).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cassava can be a powerful poverty fighter in Africa. The cash income from cassava proves more egalitarian than the other major staples because of cassava’s low cash input cost (Nweke, 2004). According to Egesi et al., 2006 cassava has in recent years transformed from famine reserve commodity and rural staple to a cash crop in Africa

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a very important crop in Nigeria deriving from the extensive use of the various products and by-products as staples to most Nigerians. The consumption of cassava cuts across all parts of the country. Its adaptability to climatic and soil conditions even in marginal soils has endeared cassava to most people that have to do continuous cultivation on limited available land. The general acceptance of cassava and its products to all classes of Nigerians on its own draws close attention to the producers of cassava (Olanrewaju et al., 2009).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fuglie, 2002 reported that cassava is a competitive crop, especially for the production of starch and animal feed. The use of cassava from 1993-2020 is predicted to increase by around 1.74 per cent per annum in the region. This implies that there is room to expand production. Moreover, improvements in quality, processing, and product marketing could increase the value of cassava products by about 20 per cent (Harshey et al., 2000).

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is a known fact that plants require some resources to produce optimally and lack and or excess of these would in no small measures have implications on their productivity. The broad objective of this paper was to examine the implications of water, environment and health on cassava production.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Water and Cassava production

<p style="text-align: justify;">The importance of water in cassava production cannot be over emphasized. Water is needed in cassava production though not in quantities that will cause rot to the tubers. Cassava is a drought resistant crop that does well where other crops fail. Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Plants, including cassava need it continuously and in appropriate quantities during their life.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Olanrewaju et al., 2009 water is the most important compound in an active plant and constitutes more than 80% of the growing tissue. Because it is essential for most plant functions, the amount of water applied during irrigation, the time and method of water application, the quality of the irrigation water, and prevailing micro-meteorological conditions are important in plant health and yield.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The inability of a plant root system to supply such demands is one of the principal constraints of plant productivity (Baker et al., 1992).Water is essential for agricultural production and its linkage to food security and population issues are often reflected in water scarcity and per capita water availability with finite water resources distributed over growing populations (Appelgren, 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Plants require water for photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction. Water used by plants is non-recoverable, because some water becomes a part of the plant chemically and remainder is released into the atmosphere. The processes of carbon dioxide fixation and temperature control require plants to transpire enormous amounts of water. Various crops transpire water at rates between 600 to 2000 litres of water per kilogram of dry matter of crops produced (Pimentel et al., 2004).

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<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Bray 1994, plants respond to water deficit at many different levels: morphologically, physiologically, cellular and metabolically. The responses are dependent upon the duration and severity of stress, the genotype of the stressed plant, the stage of development and the organ and cell type in question.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Water influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides some other processes. Both its shortage and excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently, its yield and quality. Rainfall is the cheapest source of natural water-supply for cassava and other plants (Dhanapal and Eswaramoorthi, 2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">When water is available, cassava maintains a high stomatal conductance and can keep internal carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration high; but when water becomes limiting, the plant closes stomatal in response to even small decreases in soil water potential (El-Sharkawy and Cork 1984).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Porto et al., 1988 submitted that leaf conductance to water vapour has been evaluated as an indicator of the capacity of different cassava genotypes to prevent water loss under prolonged drought. Considerable variation has been observed in leaf conductance and this parameter seems to be useful for pre – selecting sources of germplasm conferring adaptation to prolonged dry periods.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The growing scarcity and competition for water, however, stands as a major threat to future advances in poverty alleviation. In an environment of growing scarcity and competition for water a comprehensive strategy is needed to improve the productivity of water in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture and to ensure access to water by poor men and women (Barker et al., 1992).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Alves 2002 reported that cassava is commonly grown in areas receiving < 800mm rainfall per year with a dry season of 4-6 months, where tolerance of water deficit is an attribute. The critical period of water deficit effect in cassava is from 1-5 MAP (the stages of root initiation and tuberization).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Water deficit during at least 2 months of this period can reduce storage in root yield from 32-60%. Although, cassava is a drought- tolerant crop, growth and yield are decreased by prolonged dry periods. The reduction in storage root yield depends on the duration of the water deficit and is determined by the sensitivity of a particular growth stage of water stress (Connor et al., 1981; Porto et al., 1988).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Environment and cassava production

<p style="text-align: justify;">Agricultural production, according to Nugent and Drescher 2006 relies on environmental services to transform raw inputs into the nutritious and diverse food that humans rely on for survival. Modified agricultural practices can help mitigate these problems. The continuous increase in the supply and demand of cassava in developing countries has accentuated the negative impact cassava production and processing has had on the environment and biodiversity (FAO, 2001).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ekundayo, 1997 reported that activities on the environment tend to hinge on effluents which may include acids, oils and cooling water. All these consequently create a cascading concern about the protection and safety of the environment. Subair, 2009 reported that where there is no serious concern for the environment or measures for containing its problems, several issues such as indiscriminate dumping of waste, illegal mining and pollution are often inescapable.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The continued loss of forests and other vegetation plus the accumulation of carbon dioxide, methane gas, and nitrous oxides in the atmosphere during land cultivation for cassava production can lead to global climate change. Over time, such changes may alter present precipitation and temperature patterns throughout the world (Downing and Parry, 1994).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cassava is found over a wide range of edaphic and climatic conditions between 30 0N and 30 0S latitude, growing in regions from sea level to 2300m altitude, mostly in areas considered marginal for other crops: low-fertility soils, annual rainfall from < 600mm in the semiarid tropics to >1500mm in the subhumid and humid tropics (Alves,2002).

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Irikura et al., 1979, identified temperatures, photoperiods and solar radiation as environmental factors that have effects on cassava production. At a temperature of 15-240C, the leaves remain on the plant for up to 200 days while at a higher temperatures leaf life is 120 days (Splittstosser and Tunya,1992).This invariably may reduce photosynthetic activities of cassava which is eventually transmitted to low and poor yield of the crop.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Furthermore, cassava is a crop that requires high solar radiation to perform photosynthesis more efficiently (El- Sharkawy et al., 1992), it is therefore very important to know the effect of shade on cassava development and production. Okoli and Wilson (1986) found out that shade delayed storage root bulking on cassava subjected to six shade regimes of 20, 40, 50, 60 and 70%. Cassava yield obtained were reduced by 43, 56, 59, 69, and 80% respectively. This finding shows that shade has a negative influence on yield and productivity of cassava. Subsequently, under limited photosynthesis caused by low solar radiation, most of the photosynthates are utilized for shoots growth, affecting storage root development significantly, showing that the shoots are a stronger sink than roots (Alves, 2002).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The recent Nigerian government’s encouragement to grow and process more cassava for domestic and international needs resulted in corresponding increase in production and processing thus increased amount of cassava effluent discharged on the environment (Ehiagbonare et al.,2009). A poisonous substance called cyanide occurs in various concentrations during cassava processing depending on the varieties. Forty to seventy percent of the total cyanide appear in the water used to wash the disintegrated cassava and 5 to 10% in fibrous residue used in animal feed.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ehiagbonare et al., (2009) reported that waste water from cassava processing is released into the environment without proper treatment in most rural areas where cassava is processed. This has been identified as a source of pollution. Waste water running freely along surfaces contaminates agricultural surface water, stream, as it percolates into the underground water, and the subsoil, domestic animals, man, fauna and flora; it may have effect on plants as vegetation is hardly noticed on such areas (Ogundola and Laiasu, 2007).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Arotupin, 2007 submitted that during the processing of cassava tubers into various products, liquid waste waters generated was reported to cause serious havoc to vegetations, houses and bring about infection. This no doubt have being causing serious environmental pollution as a result of the indiscriminate discharge.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Health and cassava production.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Good health and productive agriculture are important in the economy of any nation especially in the fight against poverty. Health enhances work effectiveness and the productivity of an individual through increase in physical and mental capacities (Ajani and Ugwu, 2008). Although the practice of agriculture is essential for human health, careless and inappropriate agricultural practices can degrade and contaminate natural resources and in so doing, harm human health (Nugent and Drescher 2006).

<p style="text-align: justify;">All cassava organs, except seeds, contain Cyanogenic Glucosides (CG). Cultivars with < 100 mg kg -1 fresh weight (FW) are called ‘sweet’ while cultivars with 100-500 mg kg-1 are ‘bitter’ cassava (Wheatley et al., 1993). Total Cyanogenic Glucosides concentration depends on cultivar, environmental condition, cultural practices and plant age (McMahon et al., 1995).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Naturally occurring acyanogenic cassava has never been observed (Bradbury and Holloway, 1988). Since linamarin is bitter (King and Bradbury, 1995), high-cyanide cassava roots containing >100ppm cyanide are normally bitter and are called bitter cassava. One such variety in Nigeria is called ‘chop and die’.

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is difficult to understand how cassava can be promoted without giving proper consideration to the fact that it contains a cyanogen (linamarin) that liberates poisonous cyanide in the body (Madamombe, 2006). When linamarin is hydrolysed, it releases hydro cyanide, a volatile poison (Cooke and Coursey, 1981); but some cyanide can be detoxified by the human body (Oke, 1983).

<p style="text-align: justify;">In some varieties of cassava the interior of the roots (parenchyma) contains only a small amount of cyanide. This is called sweet cassava, which may be boiled and eaten, as is normal in the South Pacific (Bradbury and Holloway,

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<p style="text-align: justify;">1988). However, Cardoso et al, 2005 reported that in Amazonia (the original source of cassava) and in Africa different varieties have a range of total cyanide contents in the parenchyma from very low to very high (1–1550 ppm).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cardoso et al., 2005 and Siritunga et al 2004 in separate studies reported that linamarin is present in large amounts in the leaves and the peel of cassava roots (900–2000mg HCN kg−1 fresh weight) and the leaves also contain a second enzyme called hydroxynitrile lyase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of acetone cyanohydrin to produce HCN and acetone.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cyanogenesis is initiated in cassava when the plant tissue is damaged. Rupture of the vacuole releases linamarin, which ishydrolyzed by linamarase, a cell wall-associated -glycosidase(McMahon et al., 1995). The linamarin content of cassava flour was reported to be more than double during drought (Cardoso et al., 2005; Ernesto et al., 2002),which leads to outbreaks of konzo; most recently there were more than 100 cases in Nampula and Zambezia Provinces due to drought in 2005 (Muquingue et al., 2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cassava is increasingly popular with farmers particularly in countries of tropical Africa simply because of its agricultural advantages and potential to feed rapidly increasing populations. Also households under stress from HIV/AIDS are switching from high-input to low-input farming systems that involve cassava (FAO, 2008).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Consumption of cassava and cassava products containing large amounts of cyanide can cause acute intoxication, with symptoms of dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhoea and sometimes death (Mlingi et al., 1992). Since the lethal dose of cyanide is proportional to body weight, children tend to be more susceptible to outright poisoning than adults. In regions where there is iodine deficiency, which causes goitre and cretinism, cyanide intake from cassava exacerbates these conditions (Delange et al., 1994).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ihedioha and Chineme 2003 in their work suggested that shortening the fermentation period of cassava mash to about 24 hours constitutes a health hazard to consumers of gari. Various health disorders are associated with the consumption of cassava, which contains residual cyanogens. These disordersinclude hyperthyroidism, tropical ataxic neuropathy, and konzo(Osuntokun, 1981).

<p style="text-align: justify;">When cassava is eaten, most of the ingested cyanide is converted into thiocyanate, a reaction catalysed by the enzyme Rhodanese, which uses up part of the pool of S-containing essential amino acids methionine and cysteine/cystine (Osuntokun, 1981; Westly, 1988; Cardoso et al., 2004). These amino acids are essential in the diet because they can only be obtained from the food consumed.

<p style="text-align: justify;">A shortfall of these S-containing amino acids would limit protein synthesis and could cause stunting of growing children, as was found in a study of children in DRC (Cardoso et al., 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">A study made in Nampula Province in Mozambique showed that an estimated maximum cassava flour intake of children in an area prone to konzo was 700–900 g fresh flour per child per day and in a non-konzo area was 20–140 g fresh flour per child per day (Cardoso et al., 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is important that the introduction of cassava into new regions is accompanied by efforts to educate the people in correct methods of processing of cassava to remove cyanogens, rather than simply ignoring the dangerous aspects of this crop (Madamombe, 2006).

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is likely that the high rate of population increase in these tropical African countries is a major cause of increased cassava production, which highlights the need for proper health safeguards against cyanide diseases.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RECOMMENDATION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Policies and institutions must be developed and cost-effective management practices adopted to halt the environmental degradation caused by overexploitation of groundwater resources. Special attention must be given to implementing policies and developing technologies suitable for adoption by resource- poor farmers in water-scarce

<p style="text-align: center;">Omonona, B.T and Akinpelu, A.O: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 29 - 37, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">or marginal upland and rain-fed areas, particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa. Measures should be taken to control or minimise disease conditions that are related to cyanide poisoning, konzo and TAN intake in the diet of people who consume cassava and cassava products. As young tissues (meristems) are involved in regrowth and recovery after drought, further research is needed to give a fuller picture of cassava’s response to water deficit.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">To implement sustainable solutions, more specific knowledge of the linkages between agriculture, environment and health is needed, particularly on the human health effects of specific agricultural activities and the cumulative and interactive impacts of multiple environmental changes. And while acute health impacts are relatively identifiable, better knowledge of the chronic health problems that arise from unhealthy agricultural practices is required.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In the meantime, action is needed at the policy level. Policies aimed at environmental protection or resource conservation already exist in many countries. These policies should be enforced and also examined and possibly retooled to ensure that they are maximizing human health benefits.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Although any positive health outcomes would be revealed only over the long term, such approaches are needed as human health becomes a higher priority in agricultural decision making. After all, agriculture relies on the productivity of the environment for its survival, and humans rely on agricultural productivity for their survival.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Connor,D.J., J.H.,Cock and G.E. Parra. 1981. Response of cassava to water shortage.I. Growth and yield. Field Crops Research 4:181-200.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Delange, F., Ekpechi, L.O. and Rosling, H. 1994. Cassava cyanogenesis and iodine deficiency disorders. Acta Hortic 375:289–293.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Egesi, C., Mbanaso, E., Ogbe, F., Okogbenin, E. and Fregene, M. 2006. Development of cassava varieties with high value root quality through induced mutations and marker-aided breeding. NRCRI, Umudike Annual Report 2006. :2-6

<p style="text-align: justify;">Egesi, C., Okogbenin, E., Mbanaso, E. and Fregene, M. 2007. Induced mutations and marker-aided breeding for the improvement of root quality traits in cassava. NRCRI, Umudike Annual Report 2007. :22-23.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ehiagbonare, J.E., Enabulele,S.A., Babatunde,B.B., and Adjarhore, R. 2009. Effect of cassava effluent on Okada denizens. ''Scientific Research and Essay Vol.4 (4): 310-313. ''

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ekundayo JA 1997. Environmental consequences of the pollution of the Lagos lagoons. Bulletin of The Science Association of Nigeria, 3: 298-302.

<p style="text-align: justify;">El-Sharkwawy, M.A. and Cork, J.H. 1984. Water use efficiency of cassava. 1. Effects of air humidity and water stress on stomatal conductance and gas exchange. ''Crop Science. 24.: 497-502.''

<p style="text-align: justify;">El-Sharkwawy, M.A. Tafur, S.M.D., and Cadavid, L.F. 1992. Potential Photosynthesis of cassava as affected by growth conditions. ''Crop Science. 32.:1336 -1342.''

<p style="text-align: justify;">FAO,2001. Strategic Environmental Assessment: An Assessment of The Impact of Cassava Production and Processing on The Environment and Biodiversity Volume 5.Rome. Italy.

<p style="text-align: justify;">FAO, 2008. Corporate Document Repository. [Online]. The impact of HIV/AIDS on the agricultural sector.:://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4636E/y4636e05.htm

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Hershey, C., Henry, G., Best, R., Kawano, K., Howeler, Reinhardt, Iglesias, C., (2000). Cassava in Asia, Expanding the Competitive Edge in Diversified Market, Review document prepared for the Global cassava development strategy validation forum, held in Rome, Italy. April 26- 28, 2000. FAO /IFAD, Rome, Italy. : 58.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ihedioha, J.I. and Chineme, C.N. 2003. Clinicopathological Implications of Shortened Fermentation Periods in the Production of Toasted Cassava Granules (Gari).Journal of Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Formerly Qualitas Plantarum) 58 (3): 1-11

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 08/05/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 15/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Omonona, B.T

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, OyoState.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 38 - 41, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

<p style="text-align: justify;">© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">PROFITABILITY OF TURKEY PRODUCTUION IN AHOADA EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF

<p style="text-align: center;">RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F.

<p style="text-align: center;">Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323, Choba, RiversState

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">This study was conducted to investigate the profitability of turkey production in Ahoada East Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. A total of one hundred turkey farmers were selected from ten autonomous communities that make up Ahoada East Local Government Area. This particular area was chosen for the study because about 70% of the entire population is involved in turkey and other poultry productions. Structured questionnaires were employed to elicit information from the respondents. Statistical analysis was accomplished by means of frequency, distribution, percentages, Likert rating scale and budget analysis. The study revealed the major sources of fund for turkey production among the keepers as personal savings, financial assistance from family members and loans from micro-finance banks with low interest rate of about 10%. It was also revealed that the keepers embarked on the project because of its profitability (Xs=4.2), minimal initial capital requirement (Xs=3.6) and because it can be practiced on part time basis (Xs=3.5). Analysis also indicated that an average turkey keeper with farm size of 300 turkeys makes a profit of about three hundred thousand naira (N350,000.00) a year. However, turkey production has some constraints like high cost and unavailability of poults (''Xs =4.10). High cost of quality feed (Xs =3.21), disease mortality (Xs = 3.10).'' The turkey productions have offered reasonable income and employment opportunities to the keepers in the study area.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORD: Profitability, turkey production, Ahoada East L.G.A, Rivers StateNigeria.

<p style="margin-right: 43.2pt; text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Low animal protein intake has remained a major human nutritional problem in Nigeria, especially for the low income and non-wage earners (Amaefule et al., 2009). Okorie (2000) had identified exorbitant cost of production of ruminants and called for the encouragement of the production of monogastrics which cost less in terms of housing and other management practices. It also takes shorter time to mature to market weights. Ironkwe et al; (2007) also advocates that monogastrics are easier to manage, have relatively high turnover and quick returns to capital invested. According to Ajala and Adeshinwa (2006), the production of turkey is not popular in Nigeria until recently. Turkey is the largest of the poultry species, reaching10-15kg live-weight. But in Nigeria, large strains or hybrids of 8 -12 kg live-weight and of white plumage are reared. Turkey can be reared intensively, semi-intensively or extensively.

<p style="text-align: justify;">But the scope of this study covers those under intensive system of management which makes for better profit earning. According to Egbunike et al; (2000), turkey production is one of the good sources of animal protein in Nigeria. It is considered like chicken as a suitable alternative for small or large scale animal protein production because of its short production cycle. The turkey eggs require only twenty-eight day incubation period to hatch. But the reason for apparent inertia in turkey production appears to be lack of appreciation of its potential in contributing to the protein need or perhaps the lack of understanding of its management techniques and production (Oluyemi et al., 2007).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Peter et al., (1997) stated that local turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. They can also be kept on small financial capability. The study was aimed at investigating the profitability of turkey production among the keepers in Ahoada-East local government area of RiversState.

METHODOLOGY

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Study Area

<p style="text-align: center;">Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 38 - 41, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">The study covered the ten autonomous communities that make up Ahoada East Local Government Area of Rivers State. The major occupation of the people is farming in crop and livestock, trading and palm wine-tapping. Primary data for the study were generated through the use of structured questionnaire distributed to 100 turkey keepers in the study area. This sample size was randomly drawn from the ten autonomous communities that make up the study area. Ten respondents were randomly taken from each of ten communities.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 1: Sources of fund to turkey keepers

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to the factors that motivated and sustained their interest in turkey production <p style="text-align: justify;">Source: Field Survey, 2009 

<p style="text-align: justify;">Data Analysis

<p style="text-align: justify;">Descriptive statistics were used to analyze data on objective. The objective was analyzed with budget analysis technique while objective of profitability and reason for keeping turkey were analyzed with 5-point Likert scale.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Any item in the mean score (X5) of 3.0 or above is accepted as a positive factor while items with mean score below 3.0 are rejected. Ninety two (92) questionnaires were accurately filled and returned while 8 of them were either wrongly filled of not returned. Analysis was therefore based on the 92 returned copies of the questionnaire.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Result of analysis showed that the major source of fund to turkey farmers were personal saving and financial assistance from relatives (71.2 %) as shown in table 1. It was indicated that none of the respondents obtained any form of fund from government agencies. However, 15.4% of the respondents funded their turkey business through cooperative societies while 13.4% obtained loans from commercial and community banks for their turkey projects. The results of the analysis showed that cooperative societies funding ranked next to personal savings and grants from relatives in capital generation for turkey business. This was because the conditions attached were less stringent when compared to getting loans from other financial sources. There could be varying reasons while individuals embarked on turkey business, (table 2). It was revealed that the highest motivating factor to turkey production by turkey farmers is the profitability of the business (Xundefined4.2). The result also indicated that other significant reasons why people embark on turkey farming included that the business required minimal initial capital (XS = 3.75) and that it can be practiced on a small scale (XS= 3:5): This finding validated claims by Ironkwe et al; (2009) that turkey production require initial minimal capital when compared to other livestock practices.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Results from data analysis indicated that an average turkey farmer in the study area invested about one hundred and fifty thousand naira (N l50, 000) only in the enterprise in 2009 (Table 3). These included costs of the procurement of some items as poults, feed, labour, drugs and vaccines and other veterinary services. The result also showed that a total revenue of three hundred and fifty naira (N350,000.00) was earned from the enterprise during the period: these figures implied that an average turkey producer in the study area earned a net income of two hundred thousand naira

<p style="text-align: center;">Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 38 - 41, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">(N200,000.00) during the period of production. In order words, ten naira thirty- three kobo invested in turkey production earned twenty naira, thirty kobo.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 3: Enterprises budget for average turkey farmer using intensive system as at 2009.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 4: Constraints to turkey enterprise <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Source: Field Survey 2008

<p style="text-align: justify;">This was a good profit margin and indicated that turkey enterprise is a profitable business in the study area. About fourteen possible constraints to turkey keeping were itemized for rating by the respondents (Table 4). Five items were rated above the decision score of 3.0 indicating that they were the significant constraints to turkey business among the keepers.

<p style="text-align: justify;">These major constraints included high cost of feed, (Xs = 4.10), difficulty in securing loams for possible expansion ( Xs = 4.08),

<p style="text-align: justify;">high cost of poults ( Xs = 3.22), disease incidence ( Xs = 3.21) and lack of drugs and vaccines ( Xs = 3.10). It is remarkable that such sensitive factors as lack of awareness that turkey meat and egg are important sources of animal protein to man, lack of technical know-how, high interest rates, shortage of land for turkey production, lack of infrastructure, inaccessibility to veterinary doctors and services, lack of extension officers and low hatchability constituted little or on problem of turkey keeping in the study area. It is obvious that constraints to turkey production are more of input mobilization than management factors.

<p style="text-align: center;">Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 38 - 41, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

<p style="text-align: justify;">This study revealed that most turkey producers in the study area financed their turkey business through personal savings and grants from relatives. This implied that turkey enterprise could start without initial resort to credit facilities from financial institutions. It was also revealed that most keepers embarked on the production because of its profitability.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ajala, M.k and Adeshinwa A.O.K, (2006): Constraints of turkeys production in Zaria, Kaduna state, Nigeria Tropical Journal of Animal Science vol.9, (2) 101-106.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Amaefule, K.U, Ironkwe M.O, and G.S Ojewola (2009). Performance of grower pullets fed raw or processed pigeon pea seed meal diets. International Journal of Poultry science. 5(1), 60-64.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Egbunike, G.N., Oluyemi J.A, and Taiwo A. (2000): Poultry management during Economic depression. Proceedings of the Seminar of the Department of Animal science, University of Ibadan pp. 103-130.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ironkwe, M.O and Ajayi, F.O A (2007): Profitability analysis of boriler production in oyibo Local Government Area of rivers state, Nigeria. Global journal of Agricultural sciences. Vol.6; 195-198.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ironkwe, M.O and Etela, I. 2009): Constraints of turkey production in Umuahia, Abia state Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Research and politics vol. 45: 40-45.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Okorie, J.U (2000): A guide to livestock production in Nigeria. Macmillan Ltd, London p.155.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Oluyemi J. A and Roberts F. A (2007) Poultry Production in Warm Wet Climate. Pp 202-204.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Peters, S.O, Ikeobi C.O.N and Bankole, D.D. (1997): Small holder local turkey production issues in family poultry Nigeria. Sonaiya, E.B (Ed). Proceedings of an International Network for Family Poultry Development. Department of Animal Science, ObafemiOwolowoUniversity, Ile Ife, Nigeria pp 308.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 14/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 01/08/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ironkwe M.O.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323, Choba, RiversState

<p style="text-align: justify;">E-mail: nmonicaironkwe@yahoo.com

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

<p style="text-align: justify;">© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">EVALUATION OF ELEVEN VARIETIES OF MAIZE (Zea  mayz L.) IN ABAKALIKI AGRICULTURAL AREA, SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA

<p style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B., E.O. Okporie, H.O. Oselebe, L.G. Ekwu, E.O. Ogah and G.N. Nwokwu

<p style="text-align: center;">Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Eleven maize varieties were evaluated for their on-farm and off-farm agronomic performance in the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, which falls within the humid forest zone of southeastern Nigeria during the 2008 growing season. The eleven varieties comprised six China varieties (26-517/618, Jinghai 5, Normal corn CAU 541, High oil corn CAU 4515, ND160 China Agric University I and ND160 China Agric University II), three IITA/Nigeria hybrid varieties (Oba 98, Obasuper I and Obasuper II), one CRI Ghana variety (Obatamkpa) and a local check (Ikomwhite). Highly significant difference (p<0.01) were observed among the maize varieties for plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days to 50 % silking, number of tassels and yield (t/ha), and difference on days to 50 % tasseling and kernel density at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm) were significant (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among the varieties for cob length (cm), cob circumference (cm) and 100 – seed weight at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm). Mean grain yield was significantly (p<0.01) higher for IITA/Nigeria hybrid maize varieties and the CRI Ghana variety than for the China varieties and the local check. However, no significant difference was found among the IITA/Nigeria hybrid maize varieties and the CRI Ghana variety although the mean grain yield differed in the order: Oba 98 hybrid > Obasuper II hybrid > Obasuper I hybrid > Obatamkpa.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: Maize, evaluation, on-farm and off-farm agronomy

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize (Zea mayz L.), is the most important cereal crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and, with rice and wheat. It is one of the three most important cereal crops in the world (IITA, 2006). Maize is a widely adopted crop, capable of producing during the appropriate season in almost part of the world where farming is done (Akande and Lamidi, 2006). Maize is high yielding, easy to process, readily digested, and cheaper than other cereals. Every part of the maize plant has economic value: the grain, leaves, stalk, tassel, and cob can all be used to produce a large variety of food and non-food products (IITA, 2006).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize originated from Central America, notably Mexico, from where it spread to other parts of the world. It was introduced into Nigeria in the 16th century by the Portuguse (Future Harvest, 2004). The crop is being cultivated in the rainforest and derived savannah of Nigeria, with an annual production of about 5.6 million tons. The country’s maize crop covers about 1 million hectare out of 9 million hectares it occupied in Africa (Okporie, 2000). In Nigeria, the crop is known and called by different vernacular names depending on locality (Obi, 1991).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is represented by many varieties, some producing in as little as 70 days, others needing up to 9 months to reach maturity. Landraces, improved high yielding, pest and disease resistant varieties of maize have been developed (Uguru, 2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Before a crop variety is adopted, its yield potential in the target environment has to be evaluated. Hence the objective of this work were to evaluate the yield potentials of eleven varieties of maize from China, IITA/Nigeria and CRI Ghana, using Ikomwhite as a local check in Abakaliki agricultural area of Southeastern Nigeria. This was with the view to identify high yielding genotype(s) for possible introduction and incorporation into breeding programmes.

<p style="text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">MATERIALS AND METHODS

<p style="text-align: justify;">The evaluation trial was carried out at in the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, which falls within the humid forest zone of Southeastern Nigeria during the 2008 growing season. The maize varieties used, source of collection and their seed colours, are presented in Table 1.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The experiment was conducted as one way analysis of variance laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications. The experimental field measured 46.25 m long by 24 m wide, giving a total plot size of 1,110 m2. Flat beds which were manually tilled were used. Each replicate consisted of eleven plots, which correspond with the eleven varieties, giving a total of forty four (44) test plots. Each plot consisted of one bed, measuring 5 m x 3.75 m. Each bed was divided into five rows. There were 20 plants per row, making a total of 100 plants per plot. Distance between two plots was 0.5 m and plant spacing within the row was 25 cm with rows spaced 75 cm apart.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The treatment comprised of eleven varieties of maize. Seeds were sown at the rate of 2 – 3 per hill and thinned to one plant per hill at 10 – 15 days after seeding (DAS). Seeds were supplied where seeds fail to germinate four (4) days after planting (DAP). Mixed granulated Nitrogen – Phosphorous – Potassium (NPK) 20:10:10 fertilizer at the rate of 350 kg/ha was applied as basal in split doses. First dose (150 kg/ha) was applied three (3) weeks after planting (WAP) and the second dose (200 kg/ha) during the onset of tasselling. Cotrazine selective herbicide was sprayed two days immediately after sowing. Weeds were controlled manually using hoes as often as necessary to keep the plots free from weeds.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Data were collected on the following on-farm agronomic characters: plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days to 50 % tasselling, days to 50 % silking, number of tassels; and off-farm agronomic characters: cob length (cm), cob circumference (cm), yield (t/ha), 100 - seed weight at 15.5 % moisture content (gm) and kernel density at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Statistical analysis of data was based on the procedure for Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) for one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) as outlined by Steel and Torrie (1980). The square root transformation method was used to transform data where zero values were obtained. Separation of treatment means for statistical significant effect was by the F-LSD procedure according to Obi (2001). F-LSD test was done at 5% probability level.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS

<p style="text-align: justify;">The mean square values for the on-farm and off-farm agronomic characters are presented in Table 2. Highly significant difference (p<0.01) were observed among the maize varieties for plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days to 50 % silking, number of tassels and yield (t/ha) and, difference on days to 50 % tasseling, and kernel density at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm) were significant (p<0.05). Conversely, there were no significant difference among the varieties for cob length (cm), cob circumference (cm) and 100 – seed weight at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The mean for the on-farm agronomic characteristics of the eleven maize varieties are shown in Table 3. Highly significant (p<0.01) responses for all the maize varieties evaluated were recorded except days to 50 % tasselling that was significant at 5 % level of probability. The plant and ear heights ranged from 137.20 to 179.50 cm and 26.10 to 52.40 cm respectively. The Normal corn CAU 541 variety recorded the highest plant height (179.50) while ND 160 China Agric University II produced the lowest (137.20 cm). As regards to ear height, Ikomwhite produced the highest ear height (52.40 cm) while ND160 China Agric University II had the lowest ear height of 26.10 cm.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Number of days to 50% tasseling and silking varied from 52.50 to 57.50 and 64.00 to 75.00 respectively. Oba 98 hybrid being the earliest to flower (52.50 days) and Normal corn CAU 541 taking longer period to flower (57.50 days). As regards to days to 50% silking, Obasuper II Hybrid took the longest number of days of 75.00 to silks while High oil corn CAU 4515 and, ND 160 China Agric University I had the least number of days to silk (64.00 days).

<p style="text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 1. Source of Collection and Seed Colours of the 11 Maize Varieties

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 2. Mean Square Values for the On-Farm and Off-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

<p style="text-align: justify;">**- Plant height (cm), Ear height (cm), Days to 50% silking, Number of tassels (p<0.01)

<p style="text-align: justify;">* - Days to 50% tasselling, cob circumference (cm), Yield (kg/ha) (p<0.05)

<p style="text-align: justify;">ns- not significant

<p style="text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 3. Mean For On-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

<p style="text-align: justify;">** - Plant height (cm), Ear height (cm), Days to 50% silking, Number of tassels (p<0.01)

<p style="text-align: justify;">* - Days to 50% tasselling (p<0.05)

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 4. Mean For Off-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">** - Yield (t/ha) (p<0.01), * - Kernel Density at 15.5% Moisture Content (M.C) (p<0.05), ns- not significant

<p style="text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Number of tassels produced varied significantly (p<0.01) among the maize varieties. Obasuper II hybrid had the highest number of tassels of 16.50, followed by Obatamkpa (16.30), while the China variety, 26-517/618 was the lowest (6.50).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The mean off-farm agronomic characteristics of the eleven varieties of maize are shown in Table 4.

<p style="text-align: justify;">There were no significant differences among the maize varieties for cob length and cob circumference. High corn oil CAU 4515 had a moderate cob length of 25.80 cm while Oba-super I produced the best Cob circumference of 35.10 cm.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Mean grain yield was statistically significant (p<0.01) among the maize varieties. Oba 98 hybrid had the highest grain yield (2.44 t/ha) followed by Obasuper II hybrid (1.85 t/ha) and 26-517/618 had the lowest (0.24 t/ha). However, IITA/Nigeria hybrid maize varieties and the CRI Ghana variety Obatamkpa were statistical the same.

<p style="text-align: justify;">There were no significant differences among the maize varieties for 100-seed weight at 15% moisture contents while kernel density at 15% moisture contents was statistically significant (p<0.05) among the maize varieties evaluated. Obasuper II hybrid had the highest weight of 1.25 gm, which was statistically similar with that of ND 160 China Agric University II, Oba 98 hybrid, Oba-super I hybrid, Obatamkpa and Ikomwhite.

<p style="text-align: justify;">DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The result of the field evaluation trial showed that differences among the 11 maize varieties were highly significant on plant and ear heights (cm), days to 50% silking, number of tassels and yield (t/ha) (p<0.01), and significant on days to 50% tasselling and kernel density at 15% moisture contents (gm) (p<0.05). These varying characteristics may be due to inherent genetic constituent that is peculiar to each variety. According to Obi (1991), Uguru (2005) and, Akande and Lamidi (2006), different characteristics are controlled by different gene action and so behave differently in a given environment.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As regards to maturity, the entire varieties proved to be late maturing because the earliest maturing varieties took about 64 days to silking. According to Fajemisin (1985), varieties that took more than 50 days to silking is a late maturing maize variety while those below 50 days to silking is early maturing type.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In terms of yield attributes, all the maize varieties differed significantly from each other. Oba 98 hybrid had the highest grain yield (2.44 t/ha) while ND160 China Agric University II produced the lowest yield (0.27 kg/ha). Obi (1991) reported that maximum yield of maize for improved varieties is about 3.5 t/ha and 0.6 to 1.2 t/ha for local varieties.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In comparison with the result obtained, it could be deduced that some varieties are improved types and have the ability of performing well in this agro-ecological zone of the Country. Also, Kim et al. (1993), Ajibade and Ogunbodede (2000) and, Akande and Lamidi (2006), demonstrated that normal maize hybrid varieties were known to be superior to other maize varieties in yield potentials.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The results clearly showed promising potential grain yield for the hybrid maize varieties with Oba 98 hybrid producing the highest grain yield, followed by Obasuper II and Obasuper I.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The uniform medium sized ears are very important for the farmer to market their products to the factories and again Oba 98 is the front liner in this respect, giving the highest number of medium sized ears. The varieties High oil corn CAU 4515, ND 160 China Agric University I and Obasuper I can be harvested at an earlier period than other varieties.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Following these observation, it is quite reasonable to conclude that the variety Oba 98 hybrid is better than all other varieties in both yield and quality but can be substituted with Obasuper II, Obasuper I and Obatamkpa in the descending order. Further trials are needed with increase in fertilizer application and improved cultural practices to confirm the desirable characteristics of the varieties.

<p style="text-align: center;">Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ajibade, S.R. and Ogunbodede, B.A. (2000). AMMI analyss of maize yield trials in south western Nigeria. ''Nigr. S. Ganet.,'' 15: 22-28.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Akande, S.R. and Lamidi, G.O. (2006). Performance of quality protein maize varieties and disease reaction in the derived Savanna agro-ecology of South West Nigeria. Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Obafemi Awolowo University, moor plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria. 1-4 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fajemisin, J.M. (1985). Status of Nigeria production technology in self-sufficiency. Paper presented at NAFPP 3rd Joint Workshop, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 7-938 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Future Harvest, (2004). 35 years in the making high protein, high yielding corn to prevent malnutrition among millions. www.futureharvest.org

<p style="text-align: justify;">IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture), (2006). Maize overview. In:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Research to Nourish Africa. www.iitaresearch.org

<p style="text-align: justify;">Kim S.K., Fajemisin, J.M., Fakorede, M.A.B. and Iken, J.E. (1993). Maize improvement in Nigeria – Hybrid performance in the Savanna zone. In: Fakorede M.A.D., Alofe, C.O. and S.K. Kim (eds). Maize improvement, production and ultilization in Nigeria. Maize Association of Nigeria. 15-39 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Obi, I.U. (1991). Maize: It’s agronomy, diseases, pest and food values. Optimal Computer Solutions Ltd. Enugu, publishers. 76 Agbani Road Enugu, Nigeria, XXVIII + 206 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Obi, I.U. (2001). Introduction to factorial Experiments for Agricultural, Biological and 

<p style="text-align: justify;">Social Science Research (2nd Ed.). Optimal International Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria. Pp. 92.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Okporie, E.O. (2000). Development of high quality green maize (Zes mayz L.) varieties under acid soil conditions of Southeastern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of Nigeria. XIV+192 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Steele, G.D. and Torrie J.H. (1980). Principles and procedures of Statistic. A Biometrical

<p style="text-align: justify;">approach 2nd Edition. Hillbook Company Inc., New York, 633pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Uguru, M.I. (2005). Crop Genetics and Breeding. (Revised) Epharata Press, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. 113 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 14/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 01/08/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Utobo, E.B.

Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi StateUniversity, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

Email: [mailto:emekabenjamin@yahoo.co.uk emekabenjamin@yahoo.co.uk]

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

<p style="text-align: justify;">© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">RESPONSE OF COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata' L.) TO IRRIGATION WATER DEFICIT AT DIFFERENT GROWTH STAGES IN SEMI-ARID, NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal1, Babagana Umara1, Habib Alkali1 and A. Abdullahi2

<p style="text-align: center;">Department of Agricultural Environmental Resources Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Field experiments were conducted during the 2007/2008 dry season farming in Maiduguri, Borno state; in the northern Sahel savanna agro-ecological zone of Nigeria to evaluate the effect of imposing a 50% irrigation water deficit at different stages of growth of cow pea (Vigna unguiculata L) on growth and yield of the crop. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications using basin irrigation system. The results indicated that the reduction in 50% of irrigation water requirement had affected the both the growth and yield of the crop. It also showed that water savings are possible without significant effect on the growth and yield of the crop at stages 1, 2, 4 and 1&4. Applying the same water stress at two or more stages of growth of the crop has a detrimental consequence.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: irrigation, water stress, growth stages, cowpea, semiarid region.

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata L. ) is a tropical crop which grows erect, prostrate or climb. it grows successfully on great varieties of soils. Cowpea could complement a large number of other food crops by utilization of two different edible plant parts (leave and seeds). It is one of the versatile legume crops that can provide high protein and carbohydrate together with moderate protein and low fat from foliage as well as seeds for a vegetarian diet in a space-deployed bioregenerative life support system and could therefore play an important role in solving the problems of malnutrition, especially in countries suffering from hunger and poverty that usually characterizes countries where food production has not kept pace wit their food demand.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Irrigation water deficit (IWD) could be summarily defined as a temporary practice of supplying water to crops at rates lower than the actual crop water requirement for a predetermined period of time and/or degree of severity. The deficit is created either by supplying a pre-calculated amount of water lower than the calculated crop water requirement, or by extending the irrigation interval. In a way, it is deliberate means of subjecting crop to some degree of moisture stress. The merits and demerits of IWD were elaborated by Garrity et al. (1982); Rodrigues et al. (2007); Ma et al. (2007); Ewemoje (2007); and Deng et al. (2006). The influence of moisture stress on crop yield is a complex factor depending on duration, intensity, frequency and timing of stress, genotype and environmental factors (Mudiare and Bungwon, 2002). But shortage of water is the most important and limitation for crop production, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Therefore competition for the limited water supplies has been on the increase. Irrigation water is consequently becoming increasingly scarce and expensive, most especially in the face of the present global warming with consequential effects of decreased precipitation, increase of temperature, among others. Crop water deficit may not therefore be totally avoided, but instead be controlled, to allow for better economic utilization of limited available water resources and to derive optimum benefit from the land and water.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The critical stages of moisture are commonly used to define stages of growth at which plants are most sensitive to water stress. Each crop has certain critical stage at which if it experiences moisture stress beyond a threshold, its yield could be reduced dramatically (Michael, 1998). The requirement regarding the number of irrigation and their timing vary widely for different crops and with stages of its growth i.e. initiation, development, early maturity and late season (Richard et a., 2005). When water supply is limited, it is necessary to take into account the critical stage(s) of crop growth with respect to moisture supply.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cowpea may show some phenotypic response to water stress, but most irrigation farmers do not consider the stages of growth at which the crop needs water most to sustain its growth. It is therefore, essential to study these stages so that farmers would be informed appropriately, so that they will use the limited available water in a judicious manner.

<p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Irrigation in the northern Nigeria has a long history, but the farmers generally lack the basic knowledge of crop water requirement irrigation skill. As a result, water application had been haphazard with no specific irrigation interval. This could result in over- or under-irrigation both of which could translate to wastage of the limited water resources, flood, soil salinization, yield depression, and, hence, farmers’ economic distress (James, 1988; Mouromical and Ierna, 1995; Shock, 2002). Doorenbos and Pruitt (1984) also reported that over-irrigation could lead to poor yields. The distribution of rain fall in this region is uneven, both in space and time, and does not therefore optimally support crop growth that would ensure food sufficiency for the ever growing population in Nigeria. IWD in northern Nigeria could therefore be a vital tool in water management.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The objective of this study was to assess the effect of irrigation water deficit during growth stages on the growth and yields of cowpea.

<p style="text-align: justify;">MATERIALS AND METHODS

<p style="text-align: justify;">The experiment was carried out in the dry season of year 2007 in Maiduguri (11.5oN, 13.5oE), the Borno State capital city in the semi-arid zone of the northern Sahel savannah, Nigeria. No rainfall was recorded during the period of the study. Table 1 presents some of the physical properties of the soil in the study area. The treatments used in the study were basically withholding 50% of the crop irrigation water requirement at each growth stage of cowpea, thereby imposing 50% water stress during these stages (Table 3). NS represented non-stressed plots where full irrigation (100%) of net water requirement (NWR)) was applied and was used as the control.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Each experimental plot was 25m2 (5mx5m), replicated three times laid in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). A 0.75m-wide ridge was used to separate between the plots and two buffer ridges to separate between replications. A total of 36 plots were used for the study on a 0.1 ha field using basin irrigation system.

<p style="text-align: justify;">“SS” means a 50% water stress was imposed in the stage indicated by subscript following SS (Table 3). The treatments were imposed on the plants exactly 14 days after sowing.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Maiduguri water treatment plant popularly known as mothercat was relied upon for the supply of water for the irrigation. Irrigation water was allowed to flow into the plots at 2 l/sec to minimize possibility of erosion hazards and to achieve better irrigation uniformity (James, 1988).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The crop water requirement of the crop and the water flow rate in canals were calculated following the method of James (1988). Parameters determined in the overall research include growth parameters (plant height, numbers of leaves per plant, leaf area per plant) and yield and yield components (numbers of branches per plant, numbers of pods per plant, seed weight, 100 seed weight, and grain yield)

<p style="text-align: justify;">The grain yield was obtained from each plot by harvesting and threshing the crop in each plot manually and then weighing the grain obtained there from using an electronic balance. The same type of balance was used in all other weighing.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Growth parameters were recorded weekly from week 2 (14 days) after sowing (AS) when 98% germination was recorded. All data recorded were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the F-test as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984). Differences among the treatments and any interaction(s) were separated using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

<p style="text-align: justify;">Growth Parameters

<p style="text-align: justify;">Plant heights

<p style="text-align: justify;">The heights of the plants were generally statistically (P=0.05) similar in week 2 after sowing respectively (Table 4). This was attributed to the fact that the treatments were just imposed on the plants and only the plants that belong to treatments SS1 had received their treatment, and thus no visible difference was observed. A similar trend was observed in week 3 AS. The real effects of the treatments were noticed from week 4 AS. Applying the 50% of the net irrigation water requirement at stages 2, 1&2, 1&3, and 1,2,3,&4 had significantly (P=0.05) affected the heights of the plants (Table 4).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The heights of plants stressed at stages 1 and 4 only were statistically similar to the heights of the non stressed plants (NS). Generally, on average, the tallest plants were the non-stressed plants and they were closely followed by those plants that received stress treatments at stages 1, 4, and 1&4 only respectively. Plants that were stressed at all their stages of growth (stages 1,2,3,4) were the shortest throughout the period of the study.

<p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Number of leaves

<p style="text-align: justify;">A significant variation (P=0.05) was observed among the stressed plants with regards to their numbers of leaves in all the weeks during the growth of Vigna Unguiculata L. It was observed that plants that were stressed at stages 1&3, 2&3, 2&4 and 1,2,3,4 suffered the lowest numbers of leaves (Table 5).Yes, it is true that their heights were similar in weeks 2 and 3 (Table 4), but their leaves were few and tiny. However, the numbers of leaves of plants that were stressed at stage 1 and stage 4 were statistically at par with that of the n on-stressed plants (Table 5). This result is similar to the findings of Chaturvedi et al. (1980), Bubenheim et al. (1990) and Singh et al. (1997). There was a drastic drop in the numbers of leaves of plants stressed at stage 1 and then at stage 3 (SS1 and SS3), this was because these plants suffered stress at stage 1 (initiation stage) and then at stage 3 (mid season stage), and this results was not different from those SS2,4; SS3,4; and SS1,2,3,4. Evidently, stressing Vigna Unguiculata L. at more than one stage translated to be having detrimental effects.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Leaf Area

<p style="text-align: justify;">The effect of moisture stress at different growth stages of Vigna Unguiculata L. had significantly (P=0.05) affected the leaf area per plant. All plants that received water stress at stage 1, stage 2, or stage 4 had a similar leaf area per plant (Table 6). The leaf area per plant of the non stressed plants were however higher. Applying water stress at stage 3 (SS3) of growth had translated to a significant depression in stage 3 is mid-season, and obviously plants need adequate water supply.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Plants that were stressed at two different stages of their growth exhibited a very low leaf area per plant. It follows that a plant could be tall or long as the case may be, and may have many leaves, but can have small leaf area, as depicted by plants that were stressed at stages 1&4. It points that such plants has not been growing well, apparently due to the imposed water stress.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Yield and yield components

<p style="text-align: justify;">The number of branches, number of seed/plant, seed weight/plant, 100-seed weight and grain yield that are the yield components of Vigna Unguiculata L. were all affected by the treatments applied on the plants (Table 7). In all respects, however, the non-stressed plants exhibited best performance. All the values of the yield and yield components recorded for the non-stressed plants were however statistically similar with the plants that received water stress at only stage 1, or 2 or 4. The number of branches/plant and number of pod/plants of the plants stressed at stages1 and then at stage 4 were at par with those obtained from the non-stressed plants. But their seed weight, 100-seed weights and grain yield were lower (Table 7)

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Results obtained from the study showed that imposing water stress at stage(s) 1, 2, 4 and 1&4 during the growth of Vigna Unguiculata does not induce reduction in growth and/or yield of the crop. This provides an opportunity of safely saving up 50% of irrigation water at these stages of growth, and could help in reducing water waste, thereby maximizing the benefits from unit volume of water. Applying full irrigation at all stages of growth is no longer necessary. This study, however, cautioned against imposing up to 50% irrigation water stress on the crop at two or more stages (other than stages 1&4) as doing so had translated in retardation in growth with corresponding remarkable reduction in yield. It is thus a detrimental practice, possibly due to the prevailing climate.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bubenheim, D.L., C.A. Mitechell, and S.S. Nielsen. 1990. Utility of cowpea foliage in a crop production system for space. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (Eds). Advances in New Crops. :535-538.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Chaturvedi, G.S., P.K. Aggarwal, and S.K.Sinha. (1980). Growth and yields of determinate and indeterminate cowpeas in dryland agriculture. ''Agric. Sc. Camb.'' 94: 137-144

<p style="text-align: justify;">Deng, X., Shun, L., Zhang, H. and Turner, N.C. (2006) Improving agricultural water use efficiency in arid and semiarid areas of China. ''Agr. Water Management,''

<p style="text-align: justify;">80: 23-40

<p style="text-align: justify;">Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. (1984). Guidelines for prediction crop water requirement. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) Irrigation and Drainage paper 24, Rome

<p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ewemoje, T.A. (2007) Variable irrigation scheduling effects on growth parameters of celosia Argentea  in Humid tropical environment.'' Agr. Engrg Intl CIGR'' IX: 1-10.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Garrity, G.P., Watts, D.G., Sullivan, C.Y. and Gilley, J.R. (1982). Moisture deficit and grain sorghum performance: Effects of genotype and limited irrigation strategy. ''Agr. Journ.'', 74: 809-814

<p style="text-align: justify;">Gomez, K.A. and A.A. Gomez. 1984. Statistical procedures for agricultural researches, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York.:304-308

<p style="text-align: justify;">James, L.G. (1988). Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Canada 542p.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ma, F., Kang, S., Li, F., Zhang, J., Du, T., Hu, X. and Wang, M. (2007). Effect of water deficit In different growth stages on stem sap flux of greenhouse pear-jujube tree. ''Agr. Water Management,''90 : 190-196

<p style="text-align: justify;">Maurya P. R. (1980) Effect of water table depth on plant water relations and wheat growth. 7thNational Irrigation Seminar, Kano.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Michael, A.M. (1998). Irrigation Theory and Practice. Vikas Pub. House PVT Ltd, NewDelhi, India. 801p.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Mouromical,G. and Ierna,A.(1995). Influence of irrigation regime on growth and yield of potato. Potato Research, 38(3): 307-318.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Mudiare, O.J. and Bungwon Z.D. (2002). Susceptibity of wheat to water deficit at three growth stages. AZOJETE 2, 18-24.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Richard, G. Allen, S.P. Luise and M; Smith (2005) Guidelines for computing crop water requirement. FAO, Irrigation and drainage.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Rodgues, P.N., Pereira, I.S., Zairi, A., El-Amami, H., Slatni, H.A., Teixera, J.l. and Machdo, T. (2007). Deficit irrigation of cereals and horticultural crop simulation of strategies to cope with droughts. ''Agr. Engrg Intl CIGR'' III 1-17.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Singh, B.B., Chambliss, O.L. and Sharma, B. (1997) Recent Advances in cowpea breeding. In: B.B. Singh, D.R.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Mohan Raj, K.E. Dashiell and L.E.N Jackai (Eds) Advances in cowpea Research: 30-49.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Shock, C. (2002). Efficient irrigation scheduling. Quality potato dependence on irrigation scheduling. Malheur Agricultural Experimentation Station Reports, Oregon State University. 12p.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 1: Some physical properties of the soil used in the study

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 2: Crop growth stages and durations for cowpea <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">Stage Name Duration (days) <p style="text-align: justify;">1 Initiation 20

<p style="text-align: justify;">2 Development 30

<p style="text-align: justify;">3 mid-season 30 <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">4 Late-season 20 <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">Total 110 <p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 3: Treatments given during the growth of cowpea <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">Stages of growth 1 2 3 4 <p style="text-align: justify;">Treatments

<p style="text-align: justify;">NS 1 1 1 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS1½ 1 1 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS2 1 ½ 1 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS31 1 ½ 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS41 1 1 ½

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS1,2 ½ ½ 1 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS1,3 ½ 1 ½ 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS1,4 ½ 1 1 ½

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS2,3 1 ½ ½ 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS2,3 1 ½ 1 ½

<p style="text-align: justify;">SS3,4 1 1 ½ ½ <p style="border: medium none ; padding: 0cm; text-align: justify;">SS1,2, 3,4 ½ ½ ½ ½ <p style="text-align: justify;">Key: 1= Full irrigation water requirement applied, ½ = Half irrigation water requirement applied

Table 4: Plant heights (cm) of Vigna unguiculata L''. ''as affected by water stress at different stages of growth

<p style="text-align: justify;">All values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Table 5: Numbers of leaves of Vigna unguiculata L''. ''as affected by water stress at different stages of growth

<p style="text-align: justify;">All values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

<p style="text-align: center;">Jibrin. M. Dibal et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 48 - 53, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 6: Leaf area per plant of Vigna unguiculata L''. ''as affected by water stress at different stages of growth. <p style="text-align: justify;">All values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 7: Yield and yield components of Vigna unguiculata L. as affected by irrigation water stresses at different growth stages <p style="text-align: justify;">All values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 14/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 01/08/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Jibrin. M. Dibal

<p style="text-align: justify;">Department of Agricultural Environmental Resources Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Email: jdibal@yahoo.com

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

<p style="text-align: justify;">© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">GENDER ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION, POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS OF Thaumatococcus danielli IN EKITI STATE

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O., Adeoye I.B.,Olajide-Taiwo F.B., Usman J.M., Agbarevoh P., and Oyedele O.O

<p style="text-align: center;">National Horticultural Research Institute, P.M.B 5432, Idi-Ishin .Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: center;">e-mail of corresponding author: adelanidotol@yahoo.com

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Thaumatococcus danielli popularly known as “Ewe eran” among the Yoruba ethnic group in Nigeria is an important crop due to its numerous economic and medicinal values. The study examined gender participation in the production, potentials, and constraints of Thaumatococcus danielli in Ogotun Ekiti, Ekiti State. Data was collected with the aid of a well structured questionnaire from 50 randomly selected respondents using snowballing technique. Tools of analysis include descriptive statistics and T-test. The result of the T-test showed that land preparation, planting and weeding were male dominated (P<0.05). However, harvesting, production of mats, bags and slippers, selling of mats and bags and leaves were female dominated (P<0.05). Result also revealed that almost all the respondents were aware of the usefulness of Thaumatococcus danielli in mat weaving, fancy bags and slippers. The major constraints faced in production were in the following order: seasonal variation >price instability>marketing. Research into improvement of craft production of Thaumatococcus danielli should be encouraged; development of more industrial raw materials from its fiber should also be encouraged. Producers should be brought to the awareness of the economic and ornamental potentials of ''Thaumatococcus. danielli'' sweetness as sources of added value and income.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Key Words- Thaumatococcus danielli, Gender analysis, Potentials.

INTRODUCTION.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Before and after the discovery of crude oil, agriculture remains the mainstay of Nigerian economy. Agriculture is a major activity in the rural areas. Even the people who engage in other non-agricultural occupation such as trades and craft, weaving, carving, tailoring and merchandising, still supplement their livelihood from farming. (Olubanjo, 2001). However, most income generating and livelihood activities are along gender lines in the rural areas in Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Jigging, Samanta and Olawoye (1997) defined the term gender as it describes the socially determined, maintained and enforced roles of men, women including males and females assigned on the basis of sex. (In comparison sex denotes the physical and biological differences between males and females). Gender has proven to be an essential variable for analyzing the roles, responsibilities, constraints, opportunities incentives costs and benefits in agriculture.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As a social construct the term gender merely refers to the learned behavioral differences between men, women and youths. Gender analysis in agriculture refers to the determination of who does what, why, with what resources towards improving their overall production and the standard of living. It is the most effective tool to open up the farm household and understand it behavior (Poats 1985).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Rural women as well as men, through out the world are engaged in a range of production activities essential to household, and to the economic development of the society. The social and economic structure of Nigeria is changing with relevance of globalization. There is growing awareness of agricultural innovation and Technologies which have reconcile with the roles and responsibilities of women and men and introduce measure such as maternity leave, child and family care services and benefits. However the barriers to economic empowerment by women still persist (Adufe, 2005). In most part of the rural areas in Nigeria, division of labour within the household is gender-specific and according to Age and Sex. Men and women play prominent roles in agricultural production, and their contribution to the household food basket vary from one ethnic group to another also from one commodity food crop to the other.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Thaumatococcus danielli (Benn) Benth (miraculous berry) is a non timber forest species that has been contributing to the rural economy for a long time but whose potentials have not been fully exploited for community development. It is a multi-purpose perennial herb that offers a wide assortant of uses with its leaves, fruits, stalks and roots (Arowosoge, 2006). It is a naturally occurring plant growing in the wild. However, some

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">farmers are beginning to grow it commercially. It is processed into mats, bags, slippers and sponge. It is also used as ornamentals, fish traps, and roof thatching. Some research work has been done on the economic potentials of this miraculous berry and the analysis of the plant as a pulp. But little or no research work has been done on gender role in the planting, processing and utilization of the plant. This study is therefore being carried out to determine the role of each rural household member in the production, processing, and utilization of Thaumatococcus danielli constraints being faced in the production and the awareness of its uses was emphasized. The specific objectives of the study are to:

<p style="margin-left: 89.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -53.4pt;">(1) identify gender involvement in production, processing and utilization of the Thaumatococcus danielli

<p style="margin-left: 89.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -53.4pt;">(2) assess constraints being faced by respondents in the production of Thaumatococcus danielli.

<p style="margin-left: 89.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -53.4pt;">(3) determine the level of awareness of respondents on the utilization of the plant.

<p style="margin-left: 89.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -53.4pt;">(4) identify the social-economic and personal characteristics of the respondents.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hypothesis: There are no significant differences in the role played by male, female and children in the production of Thaumatococcus danielli.

<p style="text-align: justify;">METHODOLOGY.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The area of study was Ogotun Ekiti town in Ekiti State. The town was purposively selected being the major producer of Thaumatococcus danielli. Ekiti State is situated entirely within the tropics. It is located between longitudes 4, 5, and 450 East of the Greenwich meridian and latitude 7, 15 and 8, 50 north of the Equator. It lies south of Kwara and Kogi State, East of Osun State and bounded by Ondo State in the East and in the south. Ekiti state has 16 local Government Councils. By 2006 census, the population of Ekiti State was 2,384,212, with the capital located at Ado-Ekiti.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The state enjoys a tropical climate with two distinct seasons. These are the rainy season (April-October) and the dry season (November-March). Temperature ranges between 21 and 280 C with high humidity. Ogotun Ekiti which is known as the mat weaving center was purposively selected. Respondents have been proportionately selected using snowballing technique.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Both qualitative and quantitative instruments were used for data collection (i.e. the use of interview and questionnaire) from 50 respondents consisting of producers, processors and marketers of  Thaumatococcus danielli. Data collected included those on personal characteristics, awareness of the usage, gender involvement in production, processing, utilization and constraints. The data was analyzed using descriptive (frequencies, percentages, ranking) and t-test.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Personal Characteristics of Respondents.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 1 shows that majority(60%) of the respondents in the area of study were between ages 25-34 while 26% were less than 25 years of age. This result indicates that most of the respondent were in their active age and were therefore expected to be strong and agile. Moreover, they are likely to be opened to new ideas, Nabinta (1994) and Adebayo (2008) reported that farmers within the ages of 30-49 years adopt new ideas/technologies more easily and readily than older farmers. The results also shows that females (88%) dominated Thaumatococcus danielli production in the study area while male were just 12%.this may be due to the fact that Thaumatococcus danielli plant is mainly meant for women who takes care of children and they use the income for the payment of their children’s school fees and other domestic expenses. Further analysis from Table1 also indicated that majority (68%) of the respondents were married and are expected to be responsible. The educational qualification of the respondents indicated that majority (62%) of the respondents had no formal education, and 20% has primary school education. This may hinder adoption of innovation in a way.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Socio-economic characteristics of respondents.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 2 shows the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. The result indicated that 40% of the respondents interviewed do engages in several activities when it comes to Thaumatococcus danielli production i.e. they grow it on their farm and sell its products. This shows how important Thaumatococcus danielli is to the economy of the respondents. Reasons for being in the business as indicated by 74%were ready source of income and family commitment. The table also reveals that 46% of the respondents have been involved in Thaumatococcus danielli business for over 20 years. This indicates that it is more or less a hereditary business.

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">With this long years experience they must have been able adjust to changing condition and adopt the most efficient cultural practices in production, processing and utilization. Farm size plays an important role in farm success because it reflects the availability of capital, access to credit and even management ability. Table 2 also shows that 42% of the respondents have less than one acre of land for Thaumatococcus danielli. The major achievement of Thaumatococcus danielli respondents is found (52%) in the area of training of their children. Children education is the priority of people in Ekiti state of Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Awareness of the use of Thamatococcus danielli 

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 3 shows the awareness of respondents about the various uses of Thamatococcus danielli.All the respondents are fully aware that Thamatococcus danielli is used for mat weaving, fancy bags, slippers and used in packaging of cooked food like pap, moin moin, pounded yam e.t.c. this is corroborated by the work of Adeyeye in his study of economic analysis of in Ekiti state who stated that majority of the respondent are aware that Thamatococcus danielli is used in the packaging of cooked food and mat weaving.. Also 98% respondents claimed that it is used in combination with other materials. Thamatococcus danielli could be used in roof thatching, though this is no more common due to modernization which has led to the usage of roofing sheets as materials for roofing. Majority of the respondents (82%) are aware that Thamatococcus danielli could be used as sweetener and flavour which they even affirmed on the course of In-depth interview that the fruit of Thamatococcus danielli is sweeter than sugar. They use it in drinking garri, pap and tea. This is contrary to the view of Arowosoge (2006)that awareness about Thamatococcus danielli as sweetener is low. The least awareness of the use of Thamatococcus danielli is in its use as ornamental crops. The table shows that 14% of respondents are aware that Thamatococcus danielli is used as ornamental plant. This is an indication that it could be planted around the house to beautify the environment.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Gender involvement.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 4 shows that 86%, 90%, 92%and 98% of the male are involved in land acquisition, land preparation, planning and chemical application while 80%, 66%, 70%, 84% of females are involved in processing into slippers and bags, production of mats, selling of leaves and bags. This finding indicates that both males and females are involved in various activities of Thaumatococcus danielli production, processing and marketing. This makes it to agree with the findings of Agwu (2005) in his study of attitude of farmers towards the fadama programme in Okigwe. Agricultural zone who stated that majority of adult males were more involved in application of herbicides 79.5% and land acquisition (59.6%) while processing of the produce and marketing of produce are in the hands of females and children. The t-test (Table 5) shows that there is significant difference in all the activities of males compare to their female counterpart in Thaumatococcus danielli production.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Constraints to involvement.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Constraints to involvement in producing, processing, utilization of Thaumatococcus danielli are shown in Table 6. Seasonal variation ranked first among the constraints. This is closely followed by both marketing and price instability. This is in tune with the result of Usman (2007) in the study of marketing of Thaumatococcus danielli in Oyo-state who reported that the major problem confronting the women was is in seasonal variability of the Thaumatococcus danielli leaves.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The study revealed that majority of the respondents was between the ages of 25 and 43 years and were females (88%). Majority (62%) had no formal education and 74% of respondents indicated that Thaumatococcus danielli was a ready source of income.

<p style="text-align: justify;">All the respondents were aware of the potential of Thamatococcus danielli in mat weaving, bags, slippers and packaging of foods. Seasonal variation of the Thaumatococcus danielli raw products ranked first among the constraints encountered. Females were more involved in the producing, processing and marketing of Thaumatoccocus danielli

REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Adebayo E.F, A.N Mohammed and S.I Mshelia (2008): Economic Analysis of millet production in Gamawa Local Government Area of Bauchi State, Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Rural Sociology Vol 8 No. 1 2008.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Adufe, W.A (2005): Sociology of Education. Lucky Odoni Press. Ijebu-Ode. Pp. 1-84.

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Agwu A.E (2005): Attitude of farmers towards the Fadama Programme in Okigwe Agricultural Zone, Imo State. Nigeria Journal of Horticultural Science, Vol 10, 2005.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Arowosoge O.G.E and Labode Popoola (2006):Economic Analysis of Thaumatococcus danielli Benn Benth (miraculous berry) in Ekiti State, Nigeria.www.isfae.org/scietificjoournal/2006/issue/content.pdf.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Jiggins J: R.K Samanta, and J.E Olawoye (1977): Improving women farmers Access to Extension Services” In Burton E Sawnson, R.P Berta and A.J Sofranko (Eds) FAO reference manual, Improving Agricultural Extension.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nabinta, B.T (1994): Analysis of Indigenous storage practices for selected cereals by farmers in Bauchi L.G.A Bauchi State, Unpublished M.Sc thesis University of Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: justify;">National Population Commission (1991) Population Census.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Olubanjo, O.O (2001): Women involvement in Agriculture, A case study of Ondo State, Nigeria. An unpublished undergraduate research project, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology, Akure. OO 20-25.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Poats, S.V (1985): Gender analysis in Farming Systems, Research and Extension Projects Proceeding of family system Research/Extension symposium. University of Arkansas and Winrock Institute of Agricultural Development U.S.A pp 263-272.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Usman J.M, O.Adebisi and Adelani,O (2007) : Marketing Analysis of Thaumatococcus danielli in Ibadan Metropolis. In Proceeding of Horticultural Society of Nigeria 2007.

Table 1: Personal characteristics of the Respondents

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010

Table 2: Socio- economic characteristics of respondents. * All values are multiple responses.

Table 3: Awareness of the use of Thaumatococcus danielii

All values are multiple responses

<p style="text-align: center;">Adebisi- Adelani O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 54 - 59, 2010

Table 4: Gender involvement. All values are multiple responses, Figures in parentheses are the percentages

Table 5: T-test value of Gender involvement. P = (<0.005)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 12/11/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 28/12/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Adebisi- Adelani O.,

National Horticultural Research Institute, P.M.B 5432, Idi-Ishin .Ibadan.

E-mail: adelanidotol@yahoo.com

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

<p style="text-align: justify;">© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">CONSUMERS’ PREFERENCE FOR COMMON EXOTIC VEGETABLES IN OYO AND KANO STATE, NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B1, Olufunmi O.O1, Idris B. A2, Okafor B.N1 and Ajetunmobi T1.

<p style="text-align: center;">1National Horticultural Research Institute, P.M.B 5432, Idi-Ishin, Ibadan, 2National Horticultural Research Institute, Bagauda Sub station Kano

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The study assessed consumers’ preference for common exotic vegetables (cabbage, cucumber, watermelon, lettuce and spring onion) among consumers in Oyo and Kano State, Nigeria. A random sampling technique was used to collect primary data on consumers’ characteristics, preference for the vegetables and budget share on the vegetables. Data collected were analyzed through the use of frequency distribution, percentages and linear regression model. The results showed that most of the respondents in Oyo State were females (53.3%) while most respondents in Kano State were male (85%). Most of the respondents were within 31-40 years with a monthly income of N 21,000 - 40,000. The consumers cut across occupational groups and educational levels. Although 81% had higher education and majorities are married (69%). The preference for the vegetables were in the order watermelon > cabbage>cucumber>lettuce>spring onion in Oyo State. In Kano State, the preference were in the order lettuce >watermelon>cabbage>cucumber>spring onion. The result of the regression analysis showed that age and occupational level of respondents were the factors affecting the budget share on these vegetables in Oyo State(P<0.05). The budget share on the consumption of these vegetables was not influenced by any socioeconomic factors in Kano State (P>0.05). It is recommended that awareness should be created on the nutritional importance of these other vegetables; as this will enhance the consumption of the vegetables with more farmers encouraged into the production.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEY WORDS: Consumers Preference, Awareness, exotic vegetables, Oyo and Kano State

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Vegetables are rich sources of many essential micronutrients, including vitamins C and K, folate, thiamine, carotenes, several minerals, and dietary fiber (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, (1985), FAO, (1994), Shiundu, (2002), Clay, et al, (2005). Vegetables are the most sustainable and affordable dietary sources of micronutrients (AVRDC, 2004). The fibre of vegetables content has been reported to have beneficial effects on blood cholesterol and aids in the prevention of large bowel diseases, while in diabetic subjects, they improve glucose tolerance (IFT, 1990). Vegetables also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during food digestion because of the fibre content and roughages which promote digestion and helps in preventing constipation (Rai and Yadav, 2005). According to Nandi and Bhattacharjee (2005), Goldberg (2003); Hyson (2002); Prior and Cao ( 2000), diets high in vegetables and fruits contribute to anti oxidants which are associated with a reduced cancer and cardiovascular risk. It has been reported that two billion persons suffer from malnutrition due to inadequate consumption of vegetables (AVRDC, 2004). The FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases held in 2002 recommended a daily intake of at least 400 g/person/day (146 kg/person/year) of fruit and vegetables. World Halth Organization (WHO) places low fruit and vegetable intake sixth among 20 risk factors for global human mortality, just behind such better known killers as tobacco use and high cholesterol (FAO, 2006).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Worldwide production of vegetables has risen at an impressive rate of 4.97% per year (FAO, 2004). Vegetable production provides more jobs compared to cereal production per hectare of production (Gardner and Halweil, 2000). According to Weinberger ( 2002), a strong vegetable sector is an engine for economic growth. The level of vegetable consumption in Nigeria is rising annually owing to greater appreciation of their food values (Haruna, 2003). It has been reported by Ezedinma and Chukuezi (1999) that exotic vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, watermelon, cucumber and spring onion attract higher unit prices whilst traditional vegetables such as green amaranths, water leaf, and Jews mallow are produced in relatively large quantities to meet local markets demand but attract lower unit price. Oguntola (2006), also reported that the production of water melon is receiving prominence in consumption in Nigeria towns and cities.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fruit and vegetable consumers are influenced by the availability, desirability and accessibility of the produce (Clay et al, 2005).Consumer preference is an indicator of how much of a product consumers are willing to

<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">purchase, and is a function of income, relative prices and consumer priorities, preferences and choices. Identification of customer needs and desires constitute a critical aspect of marketing. Taste and perception have varying degrees of importance to different consumers. Convenience, that is the time and ease of preparation and consumption, is a significant factor as consumers want products that fit into busy lifestyles. Producing the same horticultural produce will not necessarily contribute to increased consumption or to improving nutrition unless people want to purchase the products and can afford to do so (Clay et al, 2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The level of awareness of the nutritive value of exotic vegetables and their contribution to balanced diet cannot be overemphasized. Thus, it becomes imperative to establish a priority list of these exotic vegetables to target research activities. The objectives of the study are to:
 * Describe the socioeconomic characteristics of respondents.
 * determine consumers’ preference for these vegetables;
 * determine the socioeconomic factor affecting the budget share of consumers on these vegetables.

<p style="text-align: justify;">METHODOLOGY

<p style="text-align: justify;">Study Area

<p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: justify; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">The study was carried out in Oyo and Kano State of Nigeria between June to October, 2008. Oyo State is an inland state in south-western Nigeria( 8°00′N 4°00′E﻿ / ﻿8°N 4°E﻿ / 8; 4). According to population census of 2006 results, it has population of 5,591,589. The state consists of thirty three Local Government Areas. Kano State is located in North-Western Nigeria (11°30′N 8°30′E﻿ / ﻿11.5°N 8.5°E﻿ / 11.5; 8.5). According to 2006 population figure, the population figure of Kano is 9,383,682 (Wikipedia, 2010). There are 44 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in the state.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Method of sampling and data collection

<p style="text-align: justify;">Four local government areas namely Ibadan North, Ibadan North West, Ibadan South West and Iddo Local government areas were purposely selected from Oyo State. Also, from Kano State, Four local government areas were purposively selected in Kano state namely: Kano municipal, Nassarawa, Bebeji and Wudil local government areas. Twenty five consumers were randomly selected from each of the local government areas giving a total number of 200 respondents from Kano and Oyo State.Primary data were collected with the aid of structured questionnaire to capture the socioeconomic characteristics and their preference for the vegetables.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Analytical Technique

<p style="text-align: justify;">The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics which include frequency distribution and percentages. Others include multiple linear regression to identify the factors affecting the budget share of consumers on the exotic vegetables. The linear regression model is stated thus:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 +b3X3 +b4X4 +b5X5 +b6X6 +u

<p style="text-align: justify;">Where

<p style="text-align: justify;">Y= Proportion of budget share on the vegetables.

<p style="text-align: justify;">X1= Gender of respondents

<p style="text-align: justify;">X2 = age of respondents (in years)

<p style="text-align: justify;">X3 = marital status of respondents,

<p style="text-align: justify;">X4= Educational level of respondents

<p style="text-align: justify;">X5= Occupational level of respondents

<p style="text-align: justify;">X6 = household income per month

<p style="text-align: justify;">a= constant,

<p style="text-align: justify;">b = the coefficient of the independent variable

<p style="text-align: justify;">Régression coefficient,

<p style="text-align: justify;">u= error term

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Socio economic characteristics of respondents

<p style="text-align: justify;">The socio economics characteristics of respondents are shown in Table 1. Most of the respondents from Oyo State are females (53.3%) while majority of respondents in Kano State are male (85%). This is attributed to the fact that males dominate marketing due to the cultural factor that encourage males to go out to purchase materials needs of the family. Most of the respondents were within 31 -40 years (38.35%). This may indicate a trend of generational taste and awareness of importance of vegetables in diet. Also, most of the respondents had tertiary level of education (80.85%) and married (69.15%).

<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Consumption pattern and preference for the vegetables

<p style="text-align: justify;">Based on the survey 35%, 25%, 17%, 16% and 7% of respondents consume watermelon, cabbage, cucumber, lettuce and spring onion respectively in Oyo State (Fig 1). As opposed to Kano State where 63.3% consume lettuce, 15% cabbage and the least consumption level was obtained with cucumber (5%). From the result of the consumers preference for the vegetables (Fig 2), most respondents preferred watermelon in Oyo State (64.7%). This was followed by cabbage (31.3%), cucumber (20%), lettuce (18%) and spring onion (16%) respectively. Also, for the preference for the vegetables in Kano State most of the respondents preferred lettuce (51.7%). This was followed by watermelon (43.3%) of the respondents. Cabbage, cucumber and spring onion were preferred by 28.3%, 18.3% and 18% of the respondents respectively. High levels of lettuce and cabbage consumption in Kano State reflect a traditional taste for vegetable salads in Northern Nigeria. Availability, low cost and ease of preparation were other factors influencing the levels of leafy vegetable consumption.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Consumer purchasing habit

<p style="text-align: justify;">From the result 59.3% of the respondents in Oyo State purchased their vegetables from the main market, 18% grocery, and 16.7% from hawkers while 6% bought from neighbourhood markets (Fig 3). For Kano, most of the respondents purchased their vegetables from the main market (68.3%). The highest percentage of respondents 44.3% spent less than #500, 20% spent #501-100, 25% spent #1001-1500 on the purchase of the vegetables and 10.7% spent between #1500-2000 in Oyo state. Similar trends were also observed in Kano State (Table 2). Generally, 71% of respondents agreed that their levels of income does not affect the consumption of the vegetables, indicating awareness of dietary importance and cultivated taste.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Factors affecting consumer preference

<p style="text-align: justify;">In order to determine the amount of money spent on these vegetables monthly, linear regression was employed. The results showed that in Oyo State, age and occupational level of respondents are the significant factors influencing the budget share on the consumption of these vegetables (Table 3). The possible relationship between occupational class and income may indicate affordability induced taste. Age may also be an important factor in this respect because younger people are expected to be more aware of the importance of the vegetables due to exposure to internet and trend literatures. On the other hand in Kano State (Table 4), there were no factors affecting the amount of money spent on the vegetables. This implies that the consumption of the vegetables cut across all the socioeconomic classes in the state.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">This study has shown that consumers showed preference to exotic vegetables. In the following order: Watermelon > cabbage > cucumber > lettuce > spring onion in Oyo State. In Kano State, the preference is in the order lettuce>watermelon>cabbage>cucumber>spring onion. Considering the numerous importance of vegetables in the diet and established taste and consumption levels, it has become an imperative to improve on production techniques, processing, storage and marketing of these produce to sustain availability and affordability.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">AVRDC. (2004): . AVRDC Medium-Term Plan: 2004–2006. Highlights. Shanhua, Taiwan: AVRDC – the World Vegetable Center. AVRDC Publication 04-566. 20 pp.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Clay, W, Galvex-Nogales, E and Wall G (2005): consumers’ needs and preferences for fruit and vegetables Food and Agricultural Organization of the united nations, Rome, 2005.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ezedinma, C and Chukezi, C (1999). In comparative analysis of urban agricultural enterprises In Lagos and Port-Harcourt in Journal of Environment and Urbanization. Volume 11, Number 2, pp 135 – 144.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Food and Agricultural Organization (1994): Production, Year book FAO Rome, Italy, pp47.

<p style="text-align: justify;">FAO, (2004): Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2004. FAOSTAT Data, 2004.

<p style="text-align: justify;">FAO, (2006): Food and Agriculture of the United Nations. More fruits and Vegetables. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department.

<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010

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<p style="margin-left: 21.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.6pt;">Goldberg, G. (ed). (2003). Plants: Diet and Health. The report of a British Nutrition Foundation Task Force.

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<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010

Table 1: Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Figure 1: Consumption rate of exotic Figure 2: Preference for exotic vegetables

<p style="text-align: justify;">vegetables in Oyo and Kano State of Nigeria. in Oyo and Kano State of Nigeria.

<p style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">Figure 3: Markets of purchase of the vegetables.

<p style="text-align: center;">Adeoye I.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 60 - 65, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 2: Proportion of income spent on vegetables

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 3 Result of the Regression analysis (Oyo State)

<p style="text-indent: 36pt;">*significant at 5%

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">Table 4: Result of the Regression analysis (Kano State)

*significant at 5%

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 12/11/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 28/12/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding Author

Adeoye I.B

National Horticultural Research Institute, P.M.B 5432, Idi-Ishin, Ibadan