Continental J. Arts and Humanities Volume 2 (2010)



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Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 1 - 6, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

AN APPROACH TO KEYBOARDING SKILLS: A PANACEA FOR SPEED AND ACCURACY

Isa, Abdullahi

Department of Secretarial Studies, Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic, Katsina State.

ABSTRACT

Keyboarding is an essential skill. Keyboarding is a life long skill. It has evolved from a transcription typing skill where secretaries typed handwritten letters into a generative typing skill involving composing original thought at the keyboard. The paper discusses the various strategies for attaining skills in keyboarding. Among these strategies is proper keyboarding, blank keyboard techniques, and the cognitive mode. The paper concluded by stressing that Speed and Accuracy in data entry are achieved through keyboarding skills. The paper recommended that teachers of keyboarding should insist on proper techniques and continual assessment of students’ performance.

KEYWORDS: Mastering keyboards, key strokes, economics, speed and accuracy, correct hand placement, keyboarding techniques.

INTRODUCTION

Mastering keyboarding involves more than just learning the locations of keys. The foundation for masterful keyboarding is technique. Technique involves the positioning and action of the body and fingers as the student is keyboarding. Ergonomics is an important aspect of keyboarding that students need to learn from the beginning of their keyboarding instruction. Learning key location involves a sequential process beginning with letters followed by punctuation, numbers, and symbols. Mastery develops through practice.

Effective and efficient keyboarding begins with learning proper technique. Students should be provided with models of keyboarders assuming good posture as they type. Key stroking is more than pressing keys. According to Bangart (1993), rapid keyboarding requires that the keys are addressed with a quick finger-action. If the finger-action is quick, then keyboarding speed will increase as the time between keystrokes is reduced. Speed and accuracy are built upon well-developed technique, which should be taught at the beginning and then developed through on-going reinforcement On-going reinforcement of technique is a challenge for teachers because it requires them to be ever-vigilant so that they can recognize and reward proper technique in the classroom or lab.

Keyboarding is a life long skill. It has evolved from a transcription typing skill where secretaries typed handwritten letters into a generative typing skill involving composing original thought at the keyboard (Cooper, 1983). Student writing develops faster through word processing because it facilitates the review and revision learning process. Efficient keyboarding skills allow students to emphasize concept development instead of focusing on key location efficiently through well-developed keyboarding skills. According to Johnson (2002) “Keyboarding is the penmanship of the computer age.” Similarly, Nelson (2000) asserted that, as a fundamental skill in today’s society, keyboarding provides our connection with the rest of the world through electronic communication. Students who become efficient keyboarders “compose better, are prouder of their work, produce documents with a neater appearance, and have better motivation”. The paper is organized into headings and each heading discusses a specific strategy for developing keyboarding skills.

Rapid Finger-Action

Effective and efficient keyboarding begins with learning proper technique. Students should be provided with models of keyboarders assuming good posture as they type. More specifically, correct hand placement should be demonstrated and explicitly discussed. This should be followed by instruction on proper keystroking. Keystroking is more than pressing keys. Rapid keyboarding requires that the keys are addressed with a quick finger-action. If the finger-action is quick, then keyboarding speed will increase as the time between keystrokes is reduced. According to Erthal (2006) speed and accuracy are built upon well-developed technique, which should be taught at the beginning and then developed through on-going reinforcement. On-going reinforcement of technique is a challenge for teachers because it requires them to be ever vigilant so that they can recognize and reward proper technique in the

Isa, Abdullahi: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 1 - 6, 2010

classroom or lab. The Type to Learn 4 software supports teachers in teaching proper technique by providing visual and auditory instruction finger striking techniques.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Proper Use of Keyboard

<p style="text-align: justify;">Of all the approaches to keyboarding, it does not matter what approach is used to teach the keyboard. A home row approach, a skip-around approach, a strong-finger-first approach, or whatever, all pro- duce similar results. What is important, however, is that the keyboard should be used in such a way as to provide an opportunity for students to key sentences as early as possible. Keying sentences permits transfer of learning to later sequences, develops chains more quickly, and provides better motivation. If students at tie end of the first day of class can key "It is I.", there is considerably more motivation than if they leave the classroom being able to type "its (Crews, 1983).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Blank Keyboard Techniques

<p style="text-align: justify;">One approach is to say, "As soon as possible, try to key that sentence without watching the keyboard." However, techniques, which prohibit students from watching the keyboard, are detrimental, rather than helpful, to learning. Thus, using typewriters with blank keyboards, putting tape on the keys to cover them, blindfolding students, taping a sheet of paper over the top of the typewriter so that the keys cannot be seen, etc., are all detrimental to learning. In addition, there appear to be few reasons for using keyboard charts. They are primarily useful only to point out the fingering of keys during keyboard learning.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Troutner (1983), If students can find the key more quickly by looking directly at the keyboard, contiguity is developed, thereby looking at the keyboard and not at a chart. The teacher needs to consider why students watch the keyboard. There are two possible explanations: either the students have developed a bad habit or they have not yet developed sufficient kinesthetic feedback. If the latter is the case, then the most effective technique to be used in the classroom is to provide the students with lots of practice so that chains can be developed and kinesthetic feedback strengthened. If the former is the case, then speed-forcing techniques are needed to break students of such habits. Drill materials are available for the implementation of such techniques.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ergonomics

<p style="text-align: justify;">An important part of learning technique is learning ergonomically sound behaviors that support proper body posture and placement. It is important for students (and teachers) to learn and follow these guidelines. Once students have an ergonomically sound foundation and have learned about the proper way to tap the keys, only then can they work to achieve their maximum efficiency in keyboarding. West (2008) discovered that A series of international studies found that “up to 60% of the students across the globe reported eye strain, neck and shoulder pain, wrist and back discomfort, headaches and fatigue,”. Posture patterns begin developing as young as seven years old so it is imperative that students are taught the proper way to sit when keyboarding.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Wetzel (2001) proper ergonomics is achieved in typewriting through the following techniques:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Students should rest their eyes by looking away from the screen and blinking rapidly while focusing on distant objects approximately every 15 minutes to reduce eyestrain.

<p style="text-align: justify;">A rest from typing should be taken at least every 30 minutes. Students should use different muscles relaxation during the break.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Key Locations techniques

<p style="text-align: justify;">Keyboarding is a psychomotor activity that needs to be taught through introduction, repetition, and reinforcement. Key letter locations should be introduced two at a time in a sequential format with repetitive activities that begin to build the kinesthetic memory traces that will link each letter with the appropriate finger movement and key. According to Erickson, (1999), these activities must be designed to guide the learner toward successful completion and reinforce accomplishment.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">In Key location techniques, each lesson begins with a warm up review, where students practice the home row to locate their home base and prepare for the lesson’s exercises. Once students are warmed up, the Security Check provides an opportunity to practice all of the letters learned so far by typing character clusters and words. New keys are then introduced, following a pattern of using the same fingers on either hand. These new keys are practiced alone and then through a series of lesson exercises using the other keys learned so far. According to Bernazza (2002), exercises provide varying levels of scaffolding and instruction, such as:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">• hints as to which side of the keyboard the character is on,

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">• hands on a lettered reference keyboard to provide guidance when incorrect keys are pressed,

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">• presenting full lines of text so students can discover a comfortable typing rhythm,

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">• instruction for typing letter combinations.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Letter Combinations Techniques

<p style="text-align: justify;">Facility with letter combinations is the key to rapid keying. Leonord (1998) proposed that mastering digraphs (two-letter combinations) was the key to maximum typing speed and accuracy. This aligns with earlier research showing that expert typists were greatly facilitated when typing text that contained “frequent letter combinations or common words,” (Fendrick, 1999). For example, the common word “me” can be considered two single letters, “m” and “e”. The keyboarder must read the letter “m”, identify that the right index finger must be used to type the “m”, and then send the command to the finger to type it. The same process is used to type the “e” using the left middle finger. If, however, the word “me” is considered a single unit that requires using the right index and left middle fingers, then the processing time to type it is reduced. This process of “chunking” letter combinations together works well with blends like “th” or “at” as well. As a student becomes more proficient in keyboarding, the task becomes one of keying letter groups rather than single letters and the processing time is thereby dramatically shortened. According to Bartholome (1998), this means that keyboarding mastery will be augmented when digraphs, frequent letter combinations, and common words are taught to students as units. This decreases response time and improves keyboarding speed (Zeitz, 2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Three Phases Techniques

<p style="text-align: justify;">The development of keyboarding skills is a cumulative process. New skills must be introduced in a consistent sequence that builds upon previously learned skills. Crews (2006) describes three stages of learning keyboarding skills that student should undergo. These three stages include: Cognitive Phase (Key Introduction), Associative Stimulus Phase (Kinesthetic Memory Traces), and Autonomous Muscle Response Phase (Automaticity). Bloom (1986) supports this sequence of learning for touch-typing.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Cognitive Phase (Key Introduction):

<p style="text-align: justify;">This initial stage involves the students deliberately thinking about the rules of technique (body, arm, and hand position; keystroking; and ergonomics). The beginning typist is also consciously thinking about the position of each individual key. Entering lines of text involves seeing, processing, and tapping strings of characters separated periodically by spaces. Learners are also purposely working to accomplish key combinations like the proper use of shift keys. In this phase, it is important to introduce the keys in a sequence that will foster student success. The learner’s progression while learning the keyboard should be a cumulative process. Pairings of characters should be introduced together with sufficient practice activities in a variety of contexts to afford the learner a certain amount of mastery before moving to the next set of keys. The next lesson should introduce a new set of characters and provide fresh practice activities that incorporate the first set of characters as well as the newly learned keys. This collective process should be continued throughout the entire keyboard.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Associative Stimulus Phase (Kinesthetic Memory Traces):

<p style="text-align: justify;">On-going practice through exercises and activities that are of high interest, high motivation, and high activity can motivate learners to engage in the repetition necessary for “kinesthetic memory traces” to develop. Through this process, students learn to connect the recognition of the character with the action of striking the corresponding key. Developing kinesthetic memory traces is part of the psychomotor learning process (Starr, 2001).

<p style="text-align: justify;">This stage of learning is the longest of the phases and involves developing a sense of continuity and rhythm in keyboarding. Continuity is cultivated through practicing and mastering common character combinations and words,

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<p style="text-align: justify;">and acquiring the aforementioned kinesthetic memory traces. Rhythm is developed through a steady repetition of keystrokes. At this stage, accuracy is not as important as speed and rhythm. Support during this phase could begin with a consistent rhythm as with a metronome. However, as the learner masters keyboarding an individualized rhythm will naturally develop based upon how the student addresses groups of letters, rather than from an external musical beat.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Autonomous Muscle Response Phase (Automaticity):

<p style="text-align: justify;">The goal of teaching keyboarding is to familiarize students with the keyboard to a point where they develop automaticity (Bloom, 1986). Automaticity is a level of proficiency where the learner is able to complete a task as a whole without devoting attention to each individual component task. Keyboarding automaticity requires facility in typing to the point where the operator is keying without thinking of the individual keys. In fact, if an accomplished keyboarder tries to think about what each finger is doing, “the entire typing process would collapse,”

<p style="text-align: justify;">Motivation as a Technique

<p style="text-align: justify;">Motivation has a great deal to do with novelty, excitement, and challenge. Prolonged activities will bore learners into inaction. While all students tend to be drawn to computer-based activities, these activities also need be interesting and provide feedback about students’ rates of progress to retain their interest. According to Bartholome (1998), students learn best when they have immediate indications of their ongoing success. Such immediate feedback of results supports performance and serve as a motivation to learning. Activities should be challenging but not overwhelming. This means that students will perform best if the activities are presented at their individual skill levels. According to Troutner (1983), matching the tasks’ requirements with the learners’ skills makes the learning experience more enjoyable. It is important that students feel a sense of accomplishment as they master the keyboard. The most effective challenges are ones where the expected level of accomplishment rises as the learner’s skill levels improve.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Techniques of Practice

<p style="text-align: justify;">Practice, Practice, Practice! One cannot develop keyboarding skills unless one is willing to practice, starting with the basic keystroke patterns. Students develop motor reflex patterns that enable their fingers to strike the correct keys automatically perfecting keyboarding skills requires a great deal of practice. The goal of learning to keyboard is to develop automaticity in the learner’s keyboarding skills. This level of expertise is not seen until one is keyboarding at least 40 WPM. Such proficiency requires persistence and long-term practice in the typical school classroom or computer lab. The use all of the fingers while in practice. If students only use two or three of their ten fingers to type, then they are setting for a disaster. Computer keyboarding practice is not unlike piano keyboarding practice. Students must utilize all of their fingers. The thumbs will be relegated primarily to the space bar, while the bulk of typing will take place with the ringer, middle, and index fingers.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">Transcription vs Generative keyboarding Techniques

<p style="text-align: justify;">Learning to keyboard using a software package can be quite successful, but will it translate to the “real world?” In most software, students read or hear words that they then key into the computer as quickly and accurately as possible. Nevertheless, how will this process of reading and typing text translate into their lives where most keyboarding time involves original composition. Crew (1983) describes a distinction between transcription and generative keyboarding. Transcription keyboarding is the style of keyboarding used in most tutorials where a passage of text is presented to the learner to be keyed into the program or word processing document.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Generative keyboarding identifies the style of keyboarding where one generates original text at the computer. Generative keyboarding is now the predominate form of computing so it is important that skills learned through a transcription method will transfer into a generative world. Wetzel (2001) identifies behavioral transfer like keyboarding as ''low-road transfer. ''They found that low-road transfer is facilitated through automatization and varied practice.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Automatization is the result of extensive practice, whereby the skill being practiced becomes fast and effortless. New environments or conditions do not adversely affect the level of transfer because the behavior is executed

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<p style="text-align: justify;">automatically, regardless of the situation. Crews, (1983) say that automaticity, and by extension skill transfer, is not certain until one is keyboarding at least 50 WPM. Varied practice describes practice that occurs in a variety of contexts. This, too, facilitates low-road skill transfer. Performing a behavior in multiple situations requires one to adapt to subtle differences in those contexts. Considering the level of keyboarding sophistication necessary to reach automatization, varied practice is the method of choice to facilitate transfer from transcription to generative keyboarding, and from the world of a software application to real-world typing situations. It only requires the instructional program to place the learner in a variety of original composition situations to provide transferable experiences to later situations.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Technique of Keyboard mastery

<p style="text-align: justify;">Students should not look at the keyboard – not even a quick peek! Students should look directly at the screen. Students can easily find the starting position without looking at the keyboard by feeling the bumps on the letters ‘F’ and ‘J’ (at the bottom of the key). In the beginning, students will be practicing with letters that do not spell out any words. As students get to know the keys, they will use “real” words and sentences. That is the only way to really be successful when learning to type. Teachers should aim to measure their students typing speed periodically – with the appropriate tools, teachers can check students’ progress in both speed and accuracy. The number of words per minute indicates students typing level. Typing games are a fun way to improve students typing speed and accuracy.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

<p style="text-align: justify;">Efficient keyboarding skills clear the path toward effective expression. Learning to keyboard accurately and efficiently requires more than being taught location of the characters on the keyboard. It requires a sequential strategy that integrates technique with key location and encourages a great deal of practice to build the automatic skills for transcribing ideas onto the computer screen. Keyboarding instruction succeeds based upon content, pedagogy, and individualization. Schools should offer opportunities for keyboarding contests, and teachers should encourage keyboarding contests among their students.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Reference

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bangart, R. (1993). The word processor as an instructional tool: A meta analysis of word. processing in writing instruction. Review of Educational Research, 63(1), 69-93

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bartholome, L. (1998). Typewriting/keyboarding instruction in elementary school. Utah State Office of Education.Bartholome, L. (1998). Teaching keyboarding to elementary school students. ''National Association of Laboratory Schools Journal. 10 ''(2).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bernazza, A. (2002). An experimental test of a first-grade reading-typewriting program.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bloom, B. (1986). Automaticity. ''Educational Leadership. 43''(5). 70-77.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cooper, W. (1983). Cognitive aspects of skilled typewriting. New York: Springer-Verlag. Crews, T.. (2006). Elementary/middle school keyboarding strategies guide (3rd edition). National Business Education Association: Reston, VA.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Crew, T. (1983). Mastering Keyboarding: One and Two. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Erickson, M. (1999). Psychomotor Skills in Typewriting. Gage Educational Pub., 1999.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Erthal, U. (2006). Techniques in Building Keyboarding Skills. Wiley Publishers of Canada.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fredrick M. (1999). Flow: The psychology of optimal performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Johnson, K. and Nelson, P and Towsed (2003). An Experiment in the Teaching-Learning of Typing Skills.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Leanord, W. (1999), Teaching Keyboarding Skills. In T. Nun (Ed.), Ohio University Press. Starr, U. (2001), The Taxonomy of Learning Typewriting. Educational Computer, 2(6),15.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Troutner, J. (1983). The issue of teaching typing. Educational Computer, 3(7), 14. http://email.about.com/od/emailtrivia/f/emails_per_day.htm

<p style="text-align: justify;">West, L. (1983). Acquisition of typewriting skill in teaching typewriting and word processing (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Wetzel, K. ( 2001). Keyboarding skills: Elementary my dear teacher? The Computing Teacher, 12(9), 15-19.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Zeitz, P. (2005), The Psychology of optimal performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 12/04/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 04/05/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">NAMING CEREMONY: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE IGBO AND YORUBA CULTURE IN NIGERIA.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele

<p style="text-align: center;">Fountain University Osogbo, Osun State, P.M.B. 4491, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: center;">delerasak@yahoo.co.uk

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Culture is simply everything that embraces our mode of live. An accumulated culture is an invented culture added to the already present one. It denotes a process of cultural growth whereby new cultural elements or traits are added by invention, discovery or borrowing to those already in existence with a resultant increases in the number of cultural traits. The purpose of this essay is to carry out a survey on the effect of culture on naming ceremonies in Igbo and Yoruba societies in Nigeria. In any social system, sociologists and anthropologists will admit the necessity of studying existing cultures in the society. This study is guided by the theory of ethnology. The major concern of the theory is the study of a race or group of people. An in-depth interview was used to obtain information from respondents. The study was carried out amongst the residents who are Igbos and Yorubas residing in the Abadina area of the University of Ibadan. The total number of respondents that was selected to be a representative sample, comprising of the Igbo and Yoruba families in the area were 14.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The study brings out clearly the importance which Igbo and Yoruba families attach to names.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt;">KEYWORDS: Culture, Ethnology, Anthropologist, Sociologist, cultural-trait and Social Organization

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Culture is the core of this study between Yoruba and Igbo societies. What then is meant by culture? Culture is people ways of life. Before a set of people can be grouped under one culture, they must share the same language, attitudes and have identical world views (Idowu, 2008).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Most commonly, cultural grouping is defined as people sharing a common code, heritage, history and social organization pattern. (Otite, and Ogionwo, 1978).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultural reality is expressed in a people’s institutions, proverbs, ceremonies, religion and polity, and can be identified as separate from the culture of another people. (Smith, 1996). People of the same cultural background tend to share the same social habits. (Bacon, 1998) believe that culture is broad enough to express all forms of spiritual life in man, whether intellectual, religion, ethnical etc. Anthropologists and sociologists in their studies have noticed that culture could be inherited and accumulated. Most of our cultural ideas are inherited. We practice an inherited culture when our social habits still reflect what our forefather practiced in their days. An accumulated culture on the other hand, is an invented culture added to the already present one. It denotes a process of cultural growth whereby new cultural elements or traits are added by invention, discovery or borrowing to those already in existence with a resultant increase in the number of cultural traits. Looking carefully at this definition of cultural accumulation, one can say that although culture differs from one community to the other, traits of similarities cannot be unexpected. Anthropologists have seen culture as a progressive process, which is possible through accumulation of culture (Ezeanya, 1998).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The concept of culture is used in various ways with different meanings. These usages are either colloquial or scientific. In colloquial terms, culture or cultured is used to state that someone has or does not have good manner or behaviour. For instance, when quarrelling, Mr. A may tell Mr. B that the latter is not cultured or has no culture. That is, Mr. A means to say that Mr. B is unrefined.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">This usage may carry some scientific meaning behind it if Mr. A and B come from the same cultural system, that is, anyone misbehaving as objectively determined, has not acquired the behaviour expected of him as a member of a particular society.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In scientific usage, culture is often defined in blanket terms as the total way of life of a people. Specifically, culture is defined as the complex whole of man’s acquisitions of knowledge, morals, belief, art, custom, technology, etc which are shared and transmitted from generation to generation. Many anthropologists and sociologists accept this definition of culture, which, was given by Taylor (1981, Fadipe, 1990) in his primitive culture. The definition stresses that culture is not a personal item; culture is used with reference to a society or a group of societies. Culture does not die with the death of an individual or a group of individuals. The culture of a people may vanish only when such people vanish under such mishaps as earthquakes.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Our definition of culture indicates that it has both material and non-material aspects, and is acquired by every member of a society. Material culture relates to overt or explicit aspect of culture, and means the products of industry, technology, art, etc that is, every visible or concrete acquisition of man in society: artifacts such as bridges, pots, cutlasses, hoes, houses, cooking utensil, handicrafts, etc. These are directly observable as the cultural products of any society. The material aspects of culture thus consist of the objects, which people have learned to make and use to satisfy their needs in society.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The non-material aspects of culture consist of the knowledge, philosophy, morals, motivation, language, attitudes and values etc. shared and transmitted in a society. These are sometimes referred to as the covert or implicit aspects of culture and are acquired by members of a society. They are not visible or tangible but they are manifested through the psychological states and behaviour of a people (Johnson, 2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Both of these aspects of culture, material and non-material go together as the culture of a people. They are fundamental in the analysis of the cultural pattern, that is, the general mode of conduct, the systematic and integrated content of behaviour, which is characteristic of a society (Oduyoye, 1997). Because of this, it is possible to predict or anticipate the behaviour of members of a society. They are not visible or tangible but they are manifested through the psychological states and behaviour of a people. It follows therefore that in sociological studies we do not consider any society or individual as “uncultured”. Every person who is a member of a society or every society in the world has a culture (Fadipe, 1990).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Culture Differences

<p style="text-align: justify;">Culture differences are the differences between the social habits of people who belong to different linguistic groups. “Communication technique that makes a person successful in New York could kill him in New Delhi” so, also a naming ceremony activities which is acceptable to the Yorubas, might not be acceptable to the Igbos; when we do not share the same culture, we tend to give different interpretations to events; this depends a lot on our cultural background which includes unconscious accumulation of the ideas and behaviour of one’s culture. Recognizing cultural or ethnic dissimilarities is like recognizing individual differences. (Smith, 1996), explains cultural differences with the attitude of the white and black people as to time. He illustrate with a colleague of his at a university who threw a big dance party for 20 couples made up of blacks and whites. The party was scheduled for 9.00pm, by 9.30pm most of the white people had arrived but only one black couple had appeared. All the blacks people did not see anything wrong in coming late. They were simply operating on ‘African people’s time’. This illustration may not necessarily be the case, when view from the culture of a black culture toward time. (White, 1998), (Sitaram, 1997) and (Smith, 1996).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The concept of family is another thing that portrays cultural differences between the blacks and whites. When a white man refers to his family, he means just himself, his wife and children, while, to an African, with his extended concept of family, his family means the husband, wife, children, grandchildren, cousin and in fact all his relations. (Ogbalu, 1997) confirms this statement when he says the Igbos believe that they owe a great deal of responsibility to all whom they are related, that is, their family. Language is another element that can reflect cultural differences. The cultural differences between two people of Yoruba and Igbo cultural background respectively, will make it difficult for them to understand each other language.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Custom manifest itself in Igbo and Yoruba naming ceremonies. Names in these two linguistic communities; have high culture content. A name could reflect gratitude, loyalty or belief in the people’s object of worship, for example “Ogunseun” is a name that shows gratitude to “Ogun” (Yoruba’s god of iron), meaning “thanks be to Ogun”. An Igbo family can also, name their child “Chika” which means, “God is the greatest”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Naming Ceremony

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Ubahakwe (2007), Nigerian indigenous names, like most other African names, have high culture content. By this is meant that personal names are not simply labels used for mere identification purposes, as baggage tags are. On the contrary, an indigenous African name on the whole personifies the individual, tells some story about the parents and or the family of the bearer, and in a more general sense, points to the values of the society into which the individual is born. Yoruba people are bounded together like the Igbo people by culture; they are made up of several clans which are bound together by language, traditions, beliefs and practices. Naming Ceremony is a widely observed culture in Yoruba land. The arrival of a newborn baby is a thing of joy. People in this linguistic group live in compounds; the family blessed with a new child expects congratulatory visits from neighbours and relations. When this obligation is not discharged ill feelings result. They sincerely observed significant events from conceptions to the births of a child. These observations serve as the basis for choosing names for children.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Customs demands that the women who have just gotten a child should be exempted from many things such as paying visits, going to the streams, cooking etc. In some compound custom permits the woman to go out of the house if she so desires after the naming ceremony- in some compounds in Erumu village, in Oyo Yoruba Society, is the 8th day, while in some other places like Lalugbon village, in the same Oyo Society, she can only do so after the 40th day when she must have been healthy enough. In Erumu community, male children are given names on the 9th day, female on the 7th day and twin children on the 8th day. There are these variations in dates because it’s believed that a male child has 9 rib bones and a female 7.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Indigenous Yoruba children usually have two types of names- one he receive as a result of the observation of events before and immediately after birth and the other is the one referred to as “Oriki”. This is the name given to a child to describe the future portents of the child’s life or as a recital of the accomplishments of a clan. It is invoked when praising a child for bringing pride to the parents, clan or when attempting to evoke virtuous character traits of bravery, fortitude, perseverance believed to be innate in a person due to his pedigree. The name of the child is not supposed to be known by anybody until the day of the person who has the right of choosing names for the child, but if the child’s grandfather is still alive, he chooses the name. Naming ceremony is referred to in Yoruba language as “Isomoloruko” meaning giving a name to a child. Others call it “Ikomojade” bringing out of the child. With children who are believed to have brought their names from heaven- these are children born in some unusual manner and in difficult circumstances, which make it necessary to prescribe special taboos for the care of the baby. This child can be named as soon as the baby is born by anybody that can discern children born in such unusual circumstances. For example, a child born with his legs coming out before his head will immediately be known and called “Ige”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Naming ceremony is one of the most important customs observed in Igbo land. “Igu aha” is the Igbo meaning for naming ceremony. A woman stays in confinement for 7 market weeks after delivering a child. She and her child are not permitted by custom to come out of the house until the day of the “Igu aha”. She stays all day beside the fire place (in her bedroom) to keep herself warm and to prevent any form of sickness after birth. She does not associate with anybody; she neither cooks nor serves food to her husband because she is believed to be unclean. Instead, her mother or sisters come around to help with the housework. She is brought special foods such as “Ariraa”, and “Awai”, these she takes every day until the 28th day, the 28 days of confinement is called “Omuguwo” in Igbo language.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The children are not given names until the 28th day, there are of course variations in this date. For example, in N’turu in Okigwe in Imo State, the naming ceremony comes up on the 8th day. Preparations are made towards the “Igu aha” before the actual day, by all Elders in the family. On the day of the ‘Igu aha” the mother and child are dressed ready for the ceremony. The Igbo people just like the Yorubas observed significant circumstance surrounding the birth of a child before a name is chosen for him/her. People of Udi and Akwa division in Anambra State believe in reincarnation (Ubesie, 1998). When a child is born they normally consult an oracle to know which

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<p style="text-align: justify;">of their dead grandparents returned back as the new born child. It’s the name of this grandparent that will be given to the child. Other sources of Igbo names are of event like, giving praise to God, market days and nature- this is when a child is given a name relating to springs or rivers. This is common among the Igbo because they believe springs are the source of life.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Interpersonal communication exists in the culture of naming ceremony, since it involves interaction between people. A woman who has just given birth to a child realizes that she immediately starts sharing meaning with her baby. For example, the cry of the baby will communicate to her that the child is uncomfortable and needs her attention. (Ojike, 2005), says that in Igbo land women who are well wishers and relations of the family blessed with a new child communicate the good news of the arrival of a new child to others by rubbing can wood on their bodies, and when anybody come in contact with them, such a person will know that a child has just been newly born. He/she can then ask who and where the child is born so that he/she can go and pay a congratulatory visit.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Materials used for Naming Ceremony

<p style="text-align: justify;">Among the Igbo people, the naming ceremony day, is a day in which all the relations and friends that are present at the ceremony feast together (Ilogu, 2002). One of the most important things at the ceremony is palm wine. The father of the child must make sure there are enough kegs of palm wine for his guests. The significance of palm wine is that, it is used to appease and invite the ancestors into their midst. Kola nut is also used for prayer; it is then broken in pieces so that all that are present will eat from it. Women from the family where the ceremony is being performed cook different types of food from which the family shrine is first fed and then the guests. If the family is one that pays prominence to God, they take part of the food to the pastor’s house or the priest.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As in the Igbo culture, among the Yoruba people, the naming of a child always attracts ceremonies. The ways these ceremonies are performed differ from one compound to the other. The naming ceremony is generally referred to as “Ikomojade” as earlier mentioned. It is the day in which the child is for the first time, brought out of the room. Hence, the term applies to the event that is, bringing out of the child. Materials used for naming ceremony among the Yoruba people differ from one family to the other. However, there are some common items according to Daramola and Jeje, (1995); these are bitter kola, salt, honey, cold water and hot drink. Adeoye (1992) added fish and “Ataare” (Alligator pepper).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Each of these materials has its own significance in the ceremony and in the life of the child to be named. The head of the family in performing the rites involved in the ceremony takes bitter kola and says to the child;( mentioning the name he has been given) as this bitter kola is strong, so must you be strong in life.

<p style="text-align: justify;">He again takes salt, puts it in the child’s mouth and says: this salt, as this salt is sweet, so must your life be sweet, and because life is as sweet as salt, you should stay and eat the salt with us. Honey and salt signify almost the same thing. Water indicates that the child’s life shall be as cool as water. With the hot drink in hand, he says; gin does not fade, may you stay long with us and not fade away.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The fish signifies food that the parents of the child eat and that important people eat meat or fish, the child should therefore grow up to be an important person who will eat meat or fish. One of the seeds of “Ataare” (Alligator pepper) is removed and put on the child’s lips; it signifies that the child should grow up and multiply just like Ataare (Alligator pepper) has many seeds.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Theoretical Framework

<p style="text-align: justify;">In this study the theory of ethnography was taken in consideration- the science of ethnography is the scientific study of a race or group of people. People without culture are dead. Culture is the totality of the people’s ways of life, beliefs and values. It is a regular and routine demonstration of the human power, body and spirit; personal and group relationship and community responsibilities. It encompasses the arts, music, and folklore intellectual development, social institutions, for which the community or society is identified. Culture is not static. It evolves with the development and advancement of the environment in which the society strives. For instance, with the advent of religion, the belief of culture of the people is bound to change in response to the new belief system.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">The cultural values of the people nurtured along the pagan religious belief, could also be woven around the new found religion and made to develop along with it. In doing so, the culture of the people under goes some changes, which would also make it grow.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In the era of technological advancement, the culture and traditions of the people are bound to respond to the changes brought about by these developments. In applying ethnography, it can be argued that in any social system, Sociologists and anthropologists will admit the necessity of studying existing cultures in the society (Bacon, 1998).And since naming ceremony is an aspect of Igbo and Yoruba cultures the theory of ethnography is of utmost importance in analyzing traditional activities involved in the naming ceremonies and the culture content of Igbo and Yoruba names.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Objectives of Study

<p style="text-align: justify;">The primary question addressed by this study is: Is there any effect of culture on the naming ceremonies of both the Igbo and Yoruba people in Nigeria?

<p style="text-align: justify;">In order to answer this research question, the specific objectives of the study are to explore the cultural areas in the naming ceremonies of both the Igbo and Yoruba people; to examine the culture content of Igbo and Yoruba names. In addition, the study examines clearly the importance which Igbo and Yoruba families attached to names.

<p style="text-align: justify;">METHODOLOGY

<p style="text-align: justify;">The study involved data collection in two stages. The first was the review of secondary sources for background information on naming ceremonies in both the Igbo and Yoruba people in Nigeria. In the second stage, primary data were collected using the in-depth interview.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The study was carried out in the Abadina residential area of the University of Ibadan in 2009. The choice of this area was influenced by the fact that households in this area are mixture of both the Igbo and Yoruba speaking people. The total number of respondents that was selected for this study was 14. The qualitative data obtained from the in-depth interview were content-analyzed along the main themes of the study.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

<p style="text-align: justify;">A total of fourteen respondents were interviewed amongst residents who are Igbos and Yorubas residing in the Abadina area of the University of Ibadan. This consists of 6(42.9%) Male and 8(57.1%) Female. The difference in the Female-Male representation is a reflection of the fact that more women are interested in social/cultural beliefs. Thus, women participation in cultural activities remains quite high.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The age distribution of respondents shows that 6(42.9%) gave no response as regard their age. 1(7.1%) of the respondents fall within 19-24years, while, 3(21.4%) of the respondents reported their ages to fall between 25-30 years. And 4(28.6%) respondents reported their ages between 31 and above. From this distribution, it appears that more of the respondents are not interested in disclosing their age and most of the people within this vicinity who are married with child/children are above thirty years of age.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Respondents’ educational statuses show that 9(64.3%) of the total population holds one form of tertiary school/academic qualification certificates, OND, HND, and BSc. However, in-depth investigation revealed that majority of the respondent who reported to have tertiary-school qualifications had studied courses in Universities with certificate or diploma statuses. About 5(35.7%) of the entire population completed Secondary school.

<p style="text-align: justify;">1(7.1%) of the population was single, while, 7(50%) were said to be married. 6(42.9%) were said to have been divorce or separated due to death of their spouse.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Analysis of respondents’ religious orientations shows that Christians constitute the single largest group of respondents. This accounted for 8(57.1%) of the number of respondents in the study. Muslim makes up 6(42.0%). This shows that within the vicinity under study, the majority of respondents are Christians compare to other religions.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">The study shows that 7(50%) of the respondents are from Igbo ethnic group, while, 7(50%) were also from the Yoruba ethnic group. This shows that there were equal opportunities given to both target population.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In the occupation distribution 3(21.4%) of the respondents did not disclosed their occupation, while, 10(71.4%) of the respondents were civil servants, the reason is not farfetched, since the study is carried out with in a government institution. 1(7.2%) of the respondents were clergy. This shows that target population which the study was proposed for fall within this bracket.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Meaning, Time and Date Attached To Names

<p style="text-align: justify;">In both the Yoruba and Igbo societies, meaning are attached to names given to a child. In the family of the first respondent, all the children except the last one have “Ade” as the prefix to their names. This means that the parents of the child have the royal blood in them, because in Yoruba land it is the children born into the families and into the extended families of chiefs that have “Ade” (meaning crown) as prefix to their names.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The basis for choosing names for children in this family is not only based on events that happened within the nuclear family, but on what also happened among the extended family. According to the first respondent, the circumstances that determine the choice of names for “Olawale” and “Adegoke” were based on what happened to their father’s brother and their paternal grandmother, respectively. This goes to support the position of Fadipe, (1990) which state that the Yoruba believes that a child born into a family is not only for the husband and wife, who had the children, but for all other members of the extended family.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The significance of the names given to “Olawale” (meaning wealth comes to the house) and “Adeitan” (meaning crown doesn’t end) according to the first respondent is the direct names of the great grandfather and the child’s grandfather shows the family’s belief in reincarnation. In both cases, the two children are seen as the personality of their deceased relations incarnate. The name of the only girl among the children, signifies that before her birth, there was no female child, so, when the girl was born, the parents were satisfied that their “crown is now complete”. The names of all the children in this family show a clear pattern of the family’s fortunes, belief in reincarnation and the circumstances at which the children are born.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In the case of the second respondent, all his children except “Oladele” (meaning wealth has gotten home) have “Olu” either, as the prefix or suffix to their names. “Olu” is the short form of the Yoruba word for God, which is “Olorun”. With the occurrence of “Olu” in virtually all the names, the special prominence given to religion in choosing names for the children is noticed. These names are either acknowledging the power of God, or showing his mercies and giving him thanks. From this names, a common fact can be made about the belief of the family, and also, on their relationship with the society to which they belong. “Olusegun” and “Ebunoluwa” are names which show the type of hostility suffered by the family (the parents of the children). “Olumuyiwa” which means “God Himself brought this” was born after “Olusegun”. At the time this child was born, the family had gotten over the hostility of the past, so, they now say the child is brought to them by God. The names given to all the children are true reflections of the life experience and the belief of the parents, while it has less to do with the children themselves.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The third and fourth respondents who happen to come from Afikpo, and Ife respectively, claimed that the right to choose names for their children is basically that of the eldest man in the family. It is noticed that where the eldest man is not available, (as in the case of respondent number two) the father of the child gives the names.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to the fifth, sixth and seventh respondents, which were from Ekiti, Ondo and Umuahia respectively, “the mothers of the children do not choose names for their children”. It then means that the choice of names for children is the responsibility of a man.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The family of the fifth respondent, who was a Yoruba mother from Ekiti, gives names to her children on the eighth day, while the family of the sixth respondent, a Yoruba father from Ondo gives names to male children on the seventh day.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to respondent seven and eight, who were Igbo father and mother, their reasons for giving names on the third month for both male and female is because tradition and culture permit them.

<p style="text-align: justify;">For respondent nine, who is from Igbo extraction, claim that one month is the ideal date to name a child to recover properly to face the ceremonial problems.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Also, respondent ten, also an Igbo father from Umuahia was of the opinion that three month is the ideal date to name a child; reason is to allow the child to be strong. One can rightly depict that the differences in the time interval tend to occur in both culture. It was also discovered that the reason for the differences could be attributed to the cultural differences attached to the date and time for the naming a new born child. In the Igbo culture the people attached importance to market days in carrying out naming ceremony.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Materials and Processes in Naming a New Born Child

<p style="text-align: justify;">Some difference are reflected in the process of naming children and in the materials used by the families of the first and second respondents even though they are of the same Yoruba cultural background. Respondent number two makes provision for religion in the materials used for the ceremony. According to him, who is a traditional Ogun worshipper says that “Ogun” the family’s object of worship is represented by any form of iron material, to show the presence of that god in their midst. This is a display of his religious affiliation, not in any way provided for by the first respondent.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The significance of the materials used for the naming ceremony according to the first, sixth and thirteen respondents, who were Yorubas, is based on the belief of the Yorubas about life. The materials are either signifying that the child should live a happy life, or that he should have many offspring. The responses of these three respondents show that the custom involved in giving names to children have slight difference even among people of the same cultural background. This confirms that among the Yoruba people, there are variations in the practice of naming ceremonies from one family to another (Ogunbowale, 1990). The basis of these variations could be due to the different processes at which each of the people got in contact with external culture and education, however, there are standard and practice common to the entire group.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Respondents, three and four were both of Igbo cultural background; the names of the children of the third respondent are reflections of what the family is deeply concerned with. This according to him shows the words of the names of the children, except the last one, refer to “Chukwu” (the great God) or “Chi”, the personal deity (another name for God). This could mean the extent to which this family practices religion.

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is noticed that these names are either recognizing the power of God, or praising and thanking him for his deeds. According to him, the name “Okundiri” of the last child, however, tells something about the social relationship between the family and the people in their community. The meaning according to him of this name shows a tensed atmosphere that even the birth of the child has not relieved.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In the case of the fourth respondent, only two of the four names that he gave have something to do with the religious belief of the family. ”Mmadukaego” is a name that reflects the Igbo and especially the family’s concept of life, the fear of death and the importance of having relationship over being rich, could have influenced the choice of this name which says “man is greater than money”. The female child was named “Nwayioma”, meaning “a good woman”. This is a name that says what the child is to the parents. There is a connection between these types of names with a marked ceremony, which is supposed to be a common practice all over Igbo land. Among the Igbo families interviewed only one did not performs the naming ceremony, while some just give names to their children without marking it with any ceremony because they have not got the money. The reason gives by the fourth respondent is based on urban area influence. Probably, if he was to be in the village, this complaint would not have come up; because neighbours and relations may have to provide virtually all the materials he would need for the ceremony, due to the extended family system practice in the village. But because people in city are mostly not concerned with this type of communal help pattern, it may be difficult for him to come by such help.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">The third respondent on her own says that the naming ceremony is performed any time when there is money. This contrasts shows difference with what respondents’ one and two have said about the dates the naming ceremony is performed. The choice of gin over palm wine or any other traditional gin (Ogogoro) must again be the effect of values and cultural differences of the family of the third respondent.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to respondent four on the process of naming ceremony: On the morning of the naming ceremony, the paternal grandmother of the child takes him or her out of the room into the midst of people who are cited for the naming ceremony, the name to be given to the child is already written on a sheet of paper in a dish that is placed on the table, where the other materials for the ceremony are. The ‘Elder’, who is leading the ceremony, takes the child, as he says the name he has been given. He simultaneously touches the lips of the child with each of the materials provided as he prays for the child.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to the fifth respondent: the Elder sit in the middle of the people who have come for the ceremony. The elderly man presiding over the ceremony uses chalk to draw a circle on the floor and he introduces the child into the world by putting the child’s legs inside the circle that has been drawn. He then tells the people the name that has been chosen for the child and prays for the child with each of the materials provided.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to the sixth respondent: On the morning of the naming ceremony, ‘my child and I wear new things’. The elder who is naming the child prays for him/her with the hot drinks and kola nuts.

<p style="text-align: justify;">He then pours a bit of the drink on the ground before he gives to everybody present to drink. After praying with the kola nuts, he breaks it into pieces and all the people present eat from it.

<p style="text-align: justify;">There was no response from respondent seven on the process of naming his children.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Respondent eight: The mother of the child is asked to sit on a mat and a bow is placed on the mat, the mother carrying the child open up the mouth of the child and the soup prepared is drop into the child’s mouth, this signified that the child is introduced into eating of pepper and salt.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The ninth respondent simply gave the reason for process in naming a child as Yoruba tradition.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to respondent ten: The head of the family submits selected name(s) to the elders in the hamlet who are present at the ceremony.

<p style="text-align: justify;">For respondent 11: people are invited, that is, family members and close friends, even in-laws. Roasted yam will be prepared and red oil with which to eat it with. The hot drink will be ready too. The mother of the child will be instructed to present the child for naming, once that is done, the eldest man in the family will pronounce the name; and entertainment will follow immediately, then the closing prayer.

<p style="text-align: justify;">There was no response from respondent 12.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The process for respondent 13 is simply praying with the materials by the eldest man for long life for the child.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to respondent 14: the parents send a town crier or any member of the family to inform the elders about the preparation or intension to name their child. You then cook for the visitors, the people contribute money for the child as well as pray, and the parents are allowed to open an account with the money so contributed for the new born baby.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The other respondents had similar responses from the above, in which they attribute the process of naming a child to traditional belief of the people.

<p style="text-align: center;">Rasak Bamidele: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 7 - 16, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The discussion brings out clearly the importance, which Igbo and Yoruba families attached to names. It means much more to them than just labels for differentiating one individual from the other. Each name tells a story about the individual, his family, and the society into which he belongs. The significance attached to names is also reflected in the ceremony that is used to mark the giving of names to children.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Yoruba and Igbo people believed that the prayers offered for the child on his naming ceremony play an important role in the life of the child thus named. This is why the Yorubas need so many materials to signify all that the child will meet in life.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The belief and in the materials prepared for his naming- ceremony, for example, it is a wish (of the Yoruba people) that someone should live a long life. This is signified in the ceremony with the offering of prayers over each of the materials used. During the prayers, special requests are made for a life worth living and an enjoyable one for the child. The Yorubas also believed in having many children, and right from the day of the naming ceremony, they show concern for the child being able to have many offspring of his or her own later in life.

<p style="text-align: justify;">This prayer for many children is signified with alligator pepper (Ataare). We also get to know about the beliefs of the Igbos and Yorubas in reincarnation through the names given to children. Reincarnation in a child is taken as a blessing especially if the deceased Elder was an important person in the family. However, in Igbo society the name given to a child on his naming ceremony are believed to be able to have influence in his future. Ubahakwe (2007) took a leaf out of Wieschoff’s article to explain this belief among the Igbo. “An ominous name is likely to spell hardship and ultimate doom for the bearer. When such names are given to children, in future people will be quick in relating the misfortunes of such children to their names”. A child named “Ngozi” (meaning Blessing) or “Obiageli” (meaning one who comes to eat) is said to be most likely to have a bright future and less of misfortunes.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The work then concludes that Igbo and Yoruba names and the naming ceremony involves are embodiments of culture, which give insight into the beliefs, customs, values and attitude of the people studied. From the result of the research carried out, among some respondents who reside in Abadina junior staff quarters, University of Ibadan. This is an academic environment where the strict practice of custom and culture may not be strictly observed by the inhabitants. The life in the city must also have influenced the way some of the respondents have deviated from the cultural practice of the naming ceremony.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Adeoye, C. (1992). Oruko Yoruba: Ibadan Oxford University Press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bacon, B. (1998). Enclopaedia of Religion: Morrison and Gibb limited; Vol. VI.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Daramola, O. and Jeje, A. (1995). Asa ati Orisa Ile Yoruba: Onibonoje press, Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ezeanya, S. (1998).Igbo Christian Names: C.M.S Press, Port Harcourt.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fadipe, N. (1990). The Sociology of the Yoruba: Ibadan University Press, Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Idowu, E. (2008). Olodumare, God in Yoruba Belief: William Clones and Sons Limited, Great- Britain.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ilogu, E. (2002). Christianity and Igbo Culture: Bill Leiden, London.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Johnson, S. (2004). The History of the Yorubas: Lowe and Brydone Printers Limited; London, pp 79-80.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Oduyoye, M. (1997). Yoruba Names, Structure and Meaning: Daystar Press, Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ogbalu, F. (1997). Igbo Institutions and Customs: University Publishing Company, Onitsha, Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ogunbowale, P. (1990). Asa Ibile Yoruba: Oxford University Press, Ibadan.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Ojike, M. (2005). My Africa: Richard Clay and co. Limited, Great Britain.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Otite, O. and Ogionwo, W. (1978). An Introduction to sociological studies. Ibadan; Heinemann Educational Limited.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Sitaram, K. (1997). What is Intercultural Communication? :Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. California.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Smith, L. (1996). Trans Racial Communication: Prentice Hall Inc. Engle Wood Cliff, New Jersey.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ubesie, T. (1998). Odinala Ndi Igbo: Oxford University Press, Ibadan.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ubahakwe, E. (2007). Culture Content of Igbo Personal Names: Nsukka, Nigeria. '''

<p style="text-align: justify;">White, L. (1998). The Science of Culture: Harcourt Brace, New York.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 09/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 21/07/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;">ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AS A PREDICTOR OF JOB SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

<p style="text-align: center;">Bankole Emmanuel Temitope

<p style="text-align: center;">Psychology Department, University of Ado Ekiti, P.M.B 5363,Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State.

<p style="text-align: center;">[mailto:mcmanuel77@yahoo.com mcmanuel77@yahoo.com]

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">This study explores the effect of organizational climate, job satisfaction and organizational commitment through a sample of Ekiti State Civil Service. The data were obtained using three different research instruments combined into a single questionnaire, the research instruments are; “Organizational Climate Questionnaire developed by Brown and Lelgh, (1996), The index of organizational reaction (IOR) scale developed by smith, (1976) and Organizational Commitment Scale, developed by Buchanan (1974). In the analysis of data, independent t test, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were used. In this study, the results show that Organizational Climate does not have any significant effect on Job Satisfaction and Commitment, also, there was no significant of Organizational Climate on gender differences but there is a significant correlation exists between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment.

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: Organization, open system, job satisfaction, gender difference, commitment scale

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organization is an open system in constant interaction with its entire environment, taken in raw materials, people, energy and information and converting them into product and services that are exported back to these various environments Schein (1980).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Stanley (1959) also defined organization as any pooling of human, physical, and spiritual resources in order to facilitate the attainment of a predetermined goal.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organizations like fingerprints are always unique. Each has its own culture, tradition and methods of action, which in their totality, constitute its climate, some organization, are bustling and efficient, other are hard and cold.

<p style="text-align: justify;">An organization however tends to attracts people and keep people who fit its climate, so that pattern are to some extent perpetuated, just as people may choose to move to a certain geographical climate of sea, mountains, or desserts, they also will choose the organization climate they prefer.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Scott (1974) defines organization as a collectivity established for the pursuit of relatively specific objectives on a more or less continuous basis.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hall (1977) expands on Scott’s definition by adding that the collectivity exist on a relatively continuous basis in an environment and engages in activities that are usually related to a goal or a set of goals.

<p style="text-align: justify;">We cannot see climate or touch it, but it is there like the air in a room, it surrounds and affects everything that happens in an organization. In turn, climate is affected by almost everything that occurs in an organization. It is a psychological concept. There is no doubt that as individuals function within an organization, they bring with them their attitudes, needs, value system and expectations. It is the interaction of these psychological attributes of the individuals and those of the organization and the resultant relationships that constitute organizational climate (Drenth, 1998).

<p style="text-align: center;">Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organizational climate has been described as a combination of shared history, expectations, unwritten rules and social moves that affects the behaviors of everyone in an organization Davis (1998). Litwin and stringer (1968) define organization climate as the quality or property of the organizational environment that (a) Is perceived or experienced by the organizational stakeholders (b) Influenced by behaviors of members. Atkinso (1964) view it as the total pattern of expectancies and incentives values that exist in a given organization.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Forehand and Gilmer (1962) proposed that organization climate consist of a set of characteristics that describe an organization and distinguish it from other organization and are relatively enduring overtime and influence the behaviors of the people in it. Fritz, steels and Stephen (1977) define organizational climate as the human environment within which an organizations employees do their work. It may refer to the environment within a department a major company unit such as branch plant or an entire organization.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Eze (1995) says organizational climate is a psychological attribute and that it involves the emotional, attitudinal relation and perceptual atmosphere of an organization According to (Reichers & Schneider, 1990). Organizational climate is defined primarily in terms of shared perceptions of organizational polices, practice and procedures. Thus organizational climate includes employee perception and evaluation of leadership practices decision – making process-working relationship among employees, appraisal and recognition, as well as role and goals.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organizational climate has been identified as a critical link between the members of an organization, their organizational behavior i.e. commitment to duty, job satisfaction and the organization itself. Welsch & Lavan’s (2003).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Job Satisfaction is an attitude based on an affective (feeling) evaluative response to a job situation. In other words, we can say that a satisfied employee finds more to like about certain components like supervision, organization’s identification, kind of work, amount of work, co-workers, Physical work conditions, financial reward, and career future. Job satisfaction is an attitude, and therefore, a hypothetical construct-something that cannot be seen but whose presence or absence is believed to be associated with a certain behaviour pattern. It is suggested that job satisfaction is a state of pleasure gained from applying one’s value to a job (Locke, 1969). Spector (1979) believes that job satisfaction can be considered as a global feeling about the job or as a related constellation of attitudes recognized as a critical link between members of an organization.

<p style="text-align: justify;">While there is yet no general agreement on core climate dimensions, there is nevertheless consensus that climate influences individual level outcome through its impact on employee cognitive and affective states (i.e. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, Job Commitment, Satisfaction, Motivation, Morale etc). In other words, levels of employee satisfaction e.t.c. mediate the influence of climate on people – performance related outcomes. If the organizational climate is unfavorable, it serves as a barrier for job satisfaction and commitment, because it tends to result in a feeling of dissatisfaction and low productivity level.

<p style="text-align: justify;">STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

<p style="line-height: normal;">Every human being feels psychologically balanced with any situation that offers maximum pleasure and reduces the state of anxiety. But one of the factors complicating the study of human behaviour is the tendency for different individuals to respond to similar situation in a variety of ways, workers in the same organization may react differently to the same environmental conditions. Many workers have experience the effect of organizational climate at some point on their performance and behaviour. The organizational climate in public organization is perceived differently by the employees.

<p style="text-align: justify;">This research is design to find out the effect of organizational climate on job satisfaction and commitment. The extent to which an employee perceived its organizational climate, directly or indirectly affects the exhibition of satisfaction to duty and the commitment of its job which in turn affects the growth of the organization positively or negatively.

==As earlier discussed, human beings are social beings who are highly responsive and capable of rating and reacting to stimuli presented by their environment and is either positively or negatively affected by these stimuli. The affect of ==

==these stimuli may lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction in an individual, the purpose of this present research is to improve our understanding in public organization on the advantages of organizational climate, how it affects organizational citizenship behaviors and job commitment ==

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">METHODOLOGY

<p style="line-height: normal;">This was carried out in different public organizations in Ekiti State.

<p style="margin-left: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;">1. Irepodun / Ifelodun Local Government.

<p style="margin-left: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;">2. Ministry of Education Ado- Ekiti.

<p style="margin-left: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;">3. Anglican Grammar School Ado Ekiti.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The sample for this study consist of one hundred and twenty (120) participants. Sixty male (60) and sixty female (60) are randomly selected from the above research setting.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The instruments that were used for the research are:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organizational climate scale developed by (Brown, S.P and Lelgh, T.W. 1996). Organizational climate scale is a 21-item scale designed to measure employee’s perception of the prevailing climate in its organization.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The index of organizational reaction (IOR) developed by smith, F.J. (1976). Index of organization reaction scale was used to measure some specific component of Job commitment. It is a 42-item inventory design to assess the reaction of workers to extent of organization commitment.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organizational Commitment Scale, developed by Buchanan (1974) was used to measure employee commitment to their organization. It is a 23-item inventory design to measure the extent to which a worker is affectively attached to the achievement of the goals and values of an organization. It assesses three components namely:

<p style="text-align: justify;">(i) Identification (ii) job involvement (iii) loyalty.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The instrument was provided to the respondent in a single questionnaire along with appropriate demographic data item. A total of (120) copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents in the chosen area of research over a period of nine days because the research area cuts across the state. After a brief explanation, the respondents were left alone to complete the questionnaire. A week later the completed questionnaire was retrieved from the respondents.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Eight (3) questionnaires were not returned while fourteen (5) were blank. Out of the remaining one hundred and twelve (112) copies of the questionnaire, ninety five (95) were properly filled and found usable for the purpose of this research in gender representation of fifty (50) females and forty five (45) males respectively.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RESULTS

<p style="text-align: justify;">The data collected were subjected to statistical analyses using the independent t-test and multiple correlation technique.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The results are hereby presented serially according to hypothesis.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hypothesis one which states that there will be a significant effect of organizational climate on job satisfaction in public organizations. It was tested using the independent t-test and the result is presented in Table 1

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 1: Regression summary table showing the effect of organizational climate on job satisfaction.

<p style="text-align: justify;">R = .116, R2=0.13, F=1.27 P =>.05 undefined

Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010
<p style="text-align: justify;">From the table, it can be seen that there is no significant effect of organizational climate on job satisfaction in public organizations. Thus the hypothesis which states that organizational climate will significantly affect job satisfaction in public organizations is rejected.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hypothesis two states that there will be a significant effect of organizational climate on organizational commitment in public organizations. It was tested using the independent t-test and the result is presented in Table 2

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 2: Regression Summary Table showing the effect of organizational climate on organizational commitment.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">R= .112, R2=0.13, F= 1.18, = >.05

<p style="text-align: justify;">From the table, it can be seen that there is no significant effect of organizational climate on organizational commitment in public organizations. Thus the hypothesis which states that organizational climate will significantly affect organizational commitment in public organizations is rejected.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hypothesis three states that there will be a significant effect of sex on organizational climate, organizational commitment and job satisfaction in public organizations. It was tested using the independent t-test and the result is presented in Table 3

<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 3: Independent t-test showing the effect of sex on organizational climate, organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

<p style="text-align: justify;">t (92) = 63, P >.05

<p style="text-align: justify;">t (92) = .10, P >.05

<p style="text-align: justify;">t (92) = -1.16, P >.05

<p style="text-align: justify;">From Table 3, it can be seen that there is a significant effect of sex on job satisfaction while there is no significant effect of sex on organizational climate and organizational commitment therefore the hypothesis which states that there will be a significant effect of sex on organizational climate, organizational commitment and job satisfaction in public organizations was partially supported.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hypothesis four states that there will be a significant relationship between organizational climate, job satisfaction and organizational commitment in public organizations. The hypothesis was tested and the result is presented in Table 4

Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010
<p style="text-align: justify;">Table 4: Multiple correlation showing the relationship between Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Climate.

<p style="text-align: justify;">From Table 4, we can see that employees Organizational Commitment is found to be positively and significantly correlated with Job Satisfaction,

<p style="text-align: justify;">r = 0.375 < 0.01 but it does not correlate with Organizational Climate,

<p style="text-align: justify;">r = -.112 > 0.05 and there is no significant between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Climate, r = -.116 > 0.05

<p style="text-align: justify;">DISCUSSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The results of this study generally did not support the hypotheses forwarded concerning the

<p style="text-align: justify;">effects of organizational climate on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in public organizations.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The first hypothesis which states that there will be a significant effect of organizational climate on job satisfaction, it was observed that there is no significant effect. The result does not agree with Chess (1994), who reported that certain motivational factors like organizational climate contribute to the prediction of job satisfaction. The findings of the present study is not in line with the body of evidence supporting the use of Bolman and Deal’s (1991b, 1997, 2003) four-frame organizational theory in efforts to understand perceived organizational behavior and characteristics (climate) in relation to the job element satisfaction of organizational members. The second hypothesis states that there will be a significant effect of organizational climate on organizational commitment. The result obtained in this study does not reveal a significant effect therefore the findings of this study does not enhance what is known in general about the relationship between organizational climate, and organizational commitment. Which was reported in the work of Allen (2003), Johnsrud, Heck, and Rosser (2000), Johnsrud (2002), Volkwein and Zhou (2003) where it was asserts that there is a positive relationship in organizational climate and organizational commitment. The third hypothesis states that there will be a significant effect of sex on organizational climate, organizational commitment and job satisfaction in public organizations. Only job satisfaction was found to have a positive effect on organizational climate the significant effect that exists in this study corresponds with (Brown and Shepherd, 1997) who reported that job satisfaction and climate improves workers' performance irrespective of sex.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The fourth hypothesis states that there will be a significant relationship between organizational climate, job satisfaction and organizational commitment in public organizations. This hypothesis was partially supported because only job satisfaction and organizational commitment has a significant relationship. This supported the work of Lemons & Jones, (2000) who suggested that a positive relationship exist in work attitudes such as job satisfaction and commitment. But it is in contrast with the work of Mosser and Walls, (2002) who reported a positive relationship in organizational climate and job satisfaction.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The negative correlation between organizational commitment and organizational climate in this study may be a result of the fact that most public organizations in the chosen area of research are not highly equipped with modern

Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010
<p style="text-align: justify;">day facilities that makes an organizational environment look more encouraging and conducive for workers. Tang and LiPing (1999) report that a relationship exists between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and Woer (1998) finds that organizational commitment relates to job satisfaction, which both support this result. Furthermore, Stokes, Riger, and Sullivan's (1995) report that perceived motivation relates to job satisfaction, commitment, and even intention to stay with the firm corroborates this present result

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSIONS The results of this study suggest that organizational climate do not really predict job satisfaction and organizational commitment, perhaps particularly during times of change in the organization. It appears that when changes are taking place in the organization, employees try to maintain their commitment to the organization if they sense the form of clarity or orderliness that exists for work activities, goals, procedures and the like. The importance of that climate in relation to employees' commitment to the organization, however, varies according to length of service. Employees apparently also will maintain their commitment to the organization if they are allowed to participate in making recommendations and in decision-making processes, which pave way for satisfaction and if they perceive that management shares accurate information with them. These findings represent a foundation for future research exploring the predictors of organizational commitment under normal conditions such as the climate and during times of change in the climate as well.

<p style="text-align: justify;">This research has made several important contributions. First, it is one of the few studies that have addressed the climate in organization in relation to employees’ satisfaction and commitment in Ekiti State. Past research focusing on employee attitudes has for the most part focused on job satisfaction neglecting the conditions that leads to job satisfaction. In an environment that is increasingly in need of satisfying its work force, it is important for researchers to understand the attitudes and reactions of public servants and this work has addresses the gap in the research in this area.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Second, the findings of this study have also pointed out some salient issues in public service, the issue of climate needs to be addressed in public service as regards the understanding of the concepts and its antecedents.

<p style="text-align: justify;">To summarize, the pattern of relationships between organizational climate, satisfaction and commitment is appealing. First, the study demonstrates that the concepts of climate translate to the Nigerian context, with particular reference to Ekiti State has suitable (and predictable) amendments. Second, the significant combination in research for climate, satisfaction and commitment is confirmed.

<p style="text-align: justify;">RECOMMENDATIONS

<p style="text-align: justify;">This research is not without limitations. In calling attention to these limitations, I simultaneously suggest directions for future inquiry. First, this study examined the effect of organizational climate on organizational commitment and job satisfaction, neglecting the components of organizational climate, commitment and satisfaction. A study of the component of these three variables will be more revealing.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Further longitudinal work is needed in this area, future investigations need to consider the extent to which what an employee considers as a favourable climate and what can cause the changes overtime and how the behavioral motives trigger the changes in organizations.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Funding this research is another constraint, as the researcher is the sole financier of this work. Availability of funds would have allowed for a wider coverage. Government should encourage research by providing grants for research institutes to sponsor researchers. Finally, the attitude of public servants as regards response to answering of questionnaire should be improved; many public servants don’t understand the importance of their response to research questions. Public sensitization is necessary in this aspect because the outcome of every research is usually for the benefit of mankind.

Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010
<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

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==Ashforth, B.E. (1994). Climate formation: Issues and Extensions. Academy of management review, 10, 837-847. ==

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bankole, E.T. (2004) Fear of Negative evaluation as a predictor of organizational citizenship behaviour among Ekiti State civil servant''. Unpublished Bsc Thesis.''

<p style="text-align: justify;">Becker, H. (1990 )Notes on the concepts of commitment. American Journal of sociology, 32-40.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Borman, W.C. & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993) Expending the criterich domain to include element of extra-role performance. In N. Schmitt & W.C. Borman (eds), ''Personnel selection in organisation. ''(PP 71-98) San Francisco: Jossy-Bass

<p style="text-align: justify;">Brickmann, P, Janoff-Bulman, R, & Robinowitz, V.C. (1996). Meaning and value in Citizenship Behaviour Bartmon & R. Sorrentino (eds), Commitment, Conflict and caring (PP 59-105). Englewod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Davis, U.C. (1998). Performance Measurement, “Staff work load issues on task force” Report, 1&2 American monthly report on management vol. 40, PP 18-20.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">Falcione, R.L, Sussman, L & Herden, R.P. (2000). ''Communication climate on organizations. ''In F.M. Jabbin, L.L. Putnam, K.H. Roberts, & L.W. Porter (eds), Handbook of organizational communication: An interdisciplinary perspective (PP 195-227) Newbury Park, CA Sage.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hall, H. (1977). ''Organizations, structure and process. ''Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall..

<p style="text-align: justify;">Kozlowski, S.W.J, & Doherty, M.L. (2001). Integration of climate and leadership: Example of neglected issue. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 546-553.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Mowday, R.T, Porter, L.M. & Steers, R.M. (1997) employee organization Linkages: ''The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. ''New York: Academy Press

<p style="text-align: justify;">Organ, D.W. (1988) ''Organizational Citizenship behaviour. ''The good soldier syndrome. Lexington M.A. Books.

<p style="text-align: justify;">citizenship behaviour and the quality and quantity of work performance. ''Journal of applied psychology. ''82:262-270.

==Poole, M.S. & Mcphee, R.D. (2003) A structural analysis of organization climate. In L.L. Putman & M.E. Pacanowsky (Eds), Communication and organization: An interpretive approach (pp 195-219). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.==

<p style="text-align: justify;">Porter, L.W., Steers, R.M, & Mowday, R.T, (1994). Organizational commitment, Job satifaction, and turnover psychiatric technicians. Journal of applied psychology, 59, 603-609.

Pritchard, R.D & Karasick, B.W. (1993) The effect of organizational climate on managerial job performance and job satisfaction. Organizational behaviour and human performance, 9, 126-146.
<p style="text-align: justify;">Scott, W.G. (1974) Organization Theory: “A reassessment” Academy of management journal, 17, No 2, 242-254.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Welsch, H.P, & La Van, H (2003) Inter-relationship between organizational commitment and characteristics, job satisfaction, professional behaviour and organizational climate Human Relations, 34, 1079-1089.

Bankole Emmanuel Temitope: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 17 - 24, 2010
<p style="text-align: justify;">ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

<p style="text-align: justify;">All Glory goes to God almighty for his love, mercies and blessings from birth till this moment and in future, for seeing me through the rigors of this research work.

<p style="text-align: justify;">My profound gratitude goes to all my well wishers and especially my fiancée, ALUKO ABIMBOLA MARY. I thank you all.

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 09/06/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 21/07/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION: A CRITICAL ISSUE FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

<p style="text-align: center;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke, Ekundayo Haastrup Timilehin And Gbenro, Abiodun Idowu

<p style="text-align: center;">Faculty Of Education, University Of Ado Ekiti, And Department Of Educational Foundations, Emmanuel Alayande College Of Education, Oyo, Nigeria

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 43.2pt 0.0001pt; line-height: normal;">Educate a woman and you have successfully educated a nation goes the saying; thus, girl-child education has become a contemporary issue to nations in the world because girls/women are usually discriminated against in all spheres of life including education. It is on this thrust that this paper examined the girl-child marginalization and with unequal access to education in comparism to her male counterpart. The study reveals that cultural practices serve as hindrance to girl-child education and that inaccessibility of the girl-child to education makes her vulnerable to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, early marriage, denial of rights and child labour. The study concluded on the note that if girl-child education is fostered, she will be self-reliant, adequately socialize and well empowered to contribute meaningfully to her community as well as having the coping skills to problems solving to an appreciable extent. The study, therefore, recommends that education should be made accessible to the girl-child at all levels and awareness programs should be floated and fostered to redeem the image of the girl-child to make the world a better place for her to live in

<p style="text-align: justify;">BACKGROUND

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Illiteracy has been regarded as an enemy and evil which keep people in darkness, bound to their traditions and superstitions; makes people resistant to change and new ideas and isolated from progress, thus unaware and incapable of meeting the demands of their changing environment and ever progressing world. Nasution in Omolewa (1985)

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Girl-child education is a matter of concern for nations in the world. Girl-children are discriminated against thereby making it difficult for them to exercise their rights; they are victims of various traditional/cultural practices, they suffer degradation, they are objects of poverty, their faces are only to be seen but their voices not to be heard, they are seen as being sub-servient to their male counterparts; they are the inferior set, their place is in the kitchen. A lot of negative thoughts and actions are expressed on the girl-child. To set the girl-child free from all these negative hold, there is need for her sound education. Giving her education will give her sound mind to reason, to liberate herself from poverty, and develop herself as well as the nation in which she lives. With education, the girl child can become a self-sufficient adult who has more decision and control over her life. Jatau in Esomonu (1999) believes that the burden of nation building rests much on women. She goes on “we need women to create a blissful home, have well-educated and well-behaved children…. it is after these that the task of nation building can be a success”. This will start from the education of the girl-child. The importance of educating the girl-child is further brought to the fore by Abacha (1997) while stating his view to support the fact that development has to be participatory and sustainable. He believed that:

<p style="margin: 0cm 54pt 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">''Progress is only feasible if we create a Nigeria made up of a united people with a united purpose… our nation needs men and women who are bold, and imaginative, dedicated and committed, people who put honour, service and patriotism above everything else. These men and women are not only needed in politics, they are also needed in business, in our traditional institutions, youth organizations, in academics and other professions”.''

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">The indication from the above is that society should stop looking down on women and they should be seen as first class citizen and not rated as second-class citizens. Educating the girl-child (who transforms later into a woman) will empower her to be strong and resourceful in such a way that she is able to contribute maximally to the sustenance and development of the society in which she lives. According to Alkali (2000), if all limiting barriers against women are removed, “women can lead, lead to the battle, if necessary fight for her society and win for her people”. Educating a girl child therefore will bring about self-awareness, increased self assertiveness in the society, raising the consciousness of women to encourage their participation in national development (Awe, 1992).

<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">It is therefore important that particular and close attention to paid to the education of the girl-child. Finding the right solution to the issue of girl-child education will not only move the girl-child forward but pushes the nation to a greater height. Considering the virtues embedded in the issue of girl child education, the issue should be rated very high.

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">The Instructional Manual on the Advancement of Nigerian Women and the Role of National and International Agencies (1996) states that to promote the advancement of Nigerian women, it is important that individuals, groups, community and government at all levels have a duty to take action in the following areas:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">v Reducing the rate of poverty among women

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">v Making sure that girls and women have equal opportunities for training and education as boys and men.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">v Making sure that girls and women have adequate opportunities for proper health care.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">v Preventing all kinds of violence against women and girls

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">v Protecting the best interest and rights of the girl-child.

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">When these actions are taken, the rights of the girl-child will be fully restored through her being educated.

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Who is a girl-child?

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">For the purpose of this paper, a girl-child shall be taken for female children between the ages of 6 and 15. Those who are expected to have free access to the free Federal Government provided Universal Basic Education.

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Issues on Girl-Child Education

<p style="text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Kofi Annan (2001) says:

<p style="line-height: normal;">“No development strategy is better than one that involves women as central players. It has immediate benefits for nutrition, health, savings and re-investment at the family, community and ultimately, country level. In order words, educating girls is a social development policy that works. It is a long-term investment that yields on exceptionally high return.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The above statement represents a call for girl-child education. It is however, discovered that girl-child education is not easy to come by as it is usually proclaimed as many impediments stand in the way of the girl-child. The rights of the girl-children are always denied them and this denial leads to lack of access to education. Inaccessibility to education thus results in child labour, which deprives the girl-child of her childhood potentials, dignity and joy. The resultant effect is poverty and the only key to ending poverty among women-folk, as a whole is education of the girl-child because as the saying goes “catch them young” for the young girl-child will grow to full woman in later years.

Rights of the girl-child
<p style="text-align: justify;">Every individual in the society is entitled to some rights as citizens of that particular society. The same is true of the girl-child. She is entitled to a lot of human rights but because she is regarded as being weak she is vulnerable to the violations of these rights. Like any other person in the society, she likewise requires the right to enjoy and exercise these rights. Some of the rights of the girl-child as stated by The People’s Movement for Human Rights Education (www.humanrights/girledu...) include the following:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to freedom from discrimination based on gender, age, race, colour, language, ethnicity or the status of the girl-child’s parents.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to a standard of living adequate for a child’s intellectual, physical, moral and spiritual development.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to a safe and healthy environment

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to equal access to food and nutrition.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to freedom from cultural practices, customs and traditions harmful to the girl-child including female genital mutilation.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Right to education- free and compulsory primary education and freedom from all types of discrimination at all levels of education.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Linked with the above rights is the right to information about health, sexuality and reproduction, protection form physical and mental abuse.

<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is pertinent to note that the girl-child can only claim these rights and exercise them if she understands what they mean and their implications upon her livelihood and dignity. The girl-child should therefore be made to know that education is empowerment and when she is empowered, she can fight for her rights and exercise such. Education of the girl-child therefore must be seen as a priority in the educational process of any nation. This calls for bridging the existing gender gap in education before any enduring success can be recorded. Lack of education of the girl-child denies her the knowledge and skills needed to advance her status and so she remains below the poverty level, wasting away in abject poverty worsened by illnesses and diseases. When a girl-child is educated, she is able to realize her full potentials, think, question and judge independently, develop civic sense, learn to respect, her fellow human beings and be a good citizen (Girl-child campaign, government of India-www.read-org/publication – 16-10-07).

<p style="text-align: justify;">To enable the girl-child enjoy the rights stated above, the United Nations, Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing (1995) formulated some strategic objectives which include the following:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Elimination of all forms of discrimination against the girl-child

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Elimination of negative cultural practices and attitudes against girls.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Promotion and protection of the rights of the girl-child and promotion of awareness of her needs and potentials.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Elimination of discrimination against girls in education and skills.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Elimination of discrimination against girls in health and nutrition.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Promotion of the girl-child’s awareness of and participation in social, economic and political life. (www.un.org/womanwatch/daw.beijing/ platform/girl.html accessed – 17-10-07).

<p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">If these strategic objectives are followed to the letter, this will result in awareness of the girl-child and she will be able to reach out for that which belongs to her after being exposed to a measure of education. Educating a girl-child therefore will free her from poverty, illness, diseases and malnutrition.

Hindrances to Girl-Child Education
<p style="text-align: justify;">According to UNESCO (2003) as quoted by Indabawa (2004), females constitute more than 50% of the World’s active population. Despite the fact that they face a number of inequitable difficulties that limit their potentials in promoting personal and collective development, they are still known to make great contributions towards national development. Some of the factors hindering the education of the girl-child as listed by Indabawa (2004) include the following:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">1. Early marriage: Girl-children are given off in marriage between the ages of ten and fourteen limiting their chances of being formally educated and with no provision for non-formal education for them in later life.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">2. Hawking Practices: Girl-Children are mostly found in these practices. The male-child education is much more valued than that of the girl-child so she is to help generate income to supplement the efforts of the parents. This robs her of access to education. To worsen matters, in the process of hawking she comes across unwanted pregnancy, which if care is not taken, leaves her suffering for her lifetime.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">3. The poverty level of families: most families are very poor and so they have to make a choice between girl-child’s education and their male ones. Traditionally, since male-children are more valued, parents mostly resorted to making their choices to favour the education of the male child leaving the girl-child impoverished.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">4. Societal attitude to girl-child: The girl-child is a weaker vessel, her place is in the kitchen, and she will use her education to benefit her husband, so why bother to send her to school? The societal attitude toward the girl-child is not in support of her education and so this makes her education to be described as dwindling as and less than equal to that of their male counterpart (Indabawa, 1998, Obanya, 2003).

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">5. Low Self-Concept: Another hindering factor is the girl-child’s low self-concept. She sees herself as not being able to cope with the challenges of modern learning, so she begins to find excuses, like, that after schooling. There are no job opportunities so; it would be better for her to stay out of the reach of education.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">Solutions must be sought to these and other impediments because girl-child education is a must if the nation is to make any appreciable progress.

<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

The Way Forward
<p style="text-align: justify;">When a girl child is educated, not only the family but also the whole nation is being educated. This is so because of her reproductive tendency and the influence she exerts on the children as the first teacher. An illiterate mother is likely to breed illiterate children while literate mothers are likely to breed enlightened children. To meet the needs of the society and to have poverty reduced, education of the girl-child must be made viable in the light of the fact that education is the key to personal as well as national development (Lassa, 1996). So gender equity in education should be promoted so as to create a healthy educated and productive human base. Ukeje (2000) states that education is so powerful that it can heal, kill, it can build up or tear apart; it can lift up or impoverish. Education is important in building up a sound individual with sound health for the price of illiteracy is poverty and poverty is intricately linked with health. The more a child suffers from poverty, the more prone the child is to illness, disease and malnutrition and the more the girl and parents are susceptible to health problems, their abilities to earn an income to survive is diminished. This has been regarded as a vicious and unmerciful cycle (Stop Child Poverty 2002).

<p style="text-align: justify;">To end this cycle, the girl-child must be educated. Girl-children who are not educated cannot have adequate access to information on how to prevent diseases and this unenlightened tendency will prevent them from having access to medical treatment and care produced in the hospitals. The above highlighted hindrances constitute challenges to girl-child education and with these challenges in mind, the people must be sensitized to the community and social benefits of educating girls. Parents especially women, should be given opportunities for income generating activities by both the various NGOs and governmental agencies to make funds available for the education of the girl-child.

<p style="text-align: justify;">World Universal School Community (WUSC,2002) suggests the use of holistic multi-level participatory approach. This approach calls for collaboration of local partners and parents in formulating educational policies and management of education. The argument is that when there is community participation in the planning and management of education, those who had hitherto being gender biased would see the need for the education of the girl-child and will work towards such. With the empowerment of parents through their participation in education matters, they are more likely to send and keep their girl-children in school and this will result in what WUSC (2002) termed “higher girl-child retention rates and locally appropriate sustainable girl-friendly education systems”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">When the girl-child or children generally are not educated, it results into child-labour and quoting Jose Maria Sumpsia on World Day Against Child Labour (2007), that “the true winning strategy against child labour is to reduce poverty in rural area…”, this strategy is only found in no other thing but in education. Child labour is that work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, dignity and which is harmful to their physical and mental development (ILO-IPEC 2002 in Stop Child Poverty-Child Labour 2002).

<p style="text-align: justify;">It can be said that child labour interferes with schooling by depriving children of opportunity to attend school and sometimes obliging them to leave school prematurely. Child labour makes children miss out in the childhood opportunities which most children enjoy and thus leading to the child not receiving basic education. Education should therefore be seen as a corner stone of a solid foundation to break free from the cycle of poverty. The long-term solution to the problem of child labour as recommended by UNICEF (2002) is that of the child (in this case girl-child) being afforded the opportunities or access to education and a healthy childhood.

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is therefore, pertinent for the girl-child to be educated to be liberated from the hold of child-labour as well as the scourge of HIV/AIDS and other social ills as faced by the girl-child.

<p style="text-align: justify;">When a girl child is educated, her knowledge base is expanded, she is able to understand and undertake socio-economic, cultural and political transformations necessary to achieve development. Education of the girl-child is positively related to her living standard and the only effective scheme to alleviate poverty is to expand the educational opportunities available to the girl child. The type of education being prescribed for the girl-child is one that will make her self-reliant (National Policy on Education 2004). With education, a girl child is made aware of her condition and she is empowered to seek solutions to her problems. When she is educated, she is empowered to fight against powerful social structures, cultural traditional practices and attitudes that are retarding progress in the society.

<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Educating a girl child will therefore help her socialize, reproduce knowledge and even lead her towards the production of new knowledge. This will lead her to alter the way she perceives of herself in the society and help her to cope with living in the society. Owing to this importance of education, it should not be seen as an exclusive reserve for the male-children. The right to education should be for all. In education lies communal spirit, in that it helps people to respect the views of others by promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among the people of a community, races and nations (Anyanwu, 1992). To bring about all these positive things that could result from being educated, the girl-child must not be excluded.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The World Declaration on Education for All (EFA) (1990) emphasizes that learning opportunity shall be expanded for all so that every individual will participate in the process of nation building. To include everybody in the process of education therefore, suitable programmes should be provided according to the needs of the people and included in the Curriculum. When the girl-child is educated, she is able to further the case of social justice and is tolerant socially, politically and emotionally. For education to be effective and impactful on the girl-children, there is need for citizen-mobilization, this will bring awareness to parents on the importance of the education of the girl-child and the pessimistic and fatalistic attitudes of people to the girl-child will change. The content of education should therefore be made more relevant to the girl-child so that she will be motivated to learn.

<p style="text-align: justify;">To encourage girl-child education, the following should be embarked upon;

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Existing curriculum should be adapted to suit the needs of the girl-child.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- The media should be employed to inform and instruct on the importance of the girl-child education to the nation.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- The planning of education generally should be focused, realistic and interactive (Adedokun, 1998).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The girl child should be educated so as to help her to compete in the world of men and to give her instrumental skills as well as intellectual development that will help her in making comprehensive judgement about the world around her (Howard, 1991). The educative process involves changes, transition, adaptation and modification and so the education of the girl-child must be rooted in the immediate practical and social life of the girl-child (Howard, 1991).

CONCLUSION
==In this paper, an attempt has been made to examine the issues surrounding the girl-child education, the rights of the girl-child, hindrances to girl-child education, the benefits that come to individual girl-child as well as the community/nation through the education of the girl-child. The paper concluded that educating the girl-child eradicates poverty, backwardness, diseases and illnesses in any nation and it promotes personal as well as national development.==

RECOMMENDATIONS
<p style="text-align: justify;">In light of the above importance of educating the girl-child, the following recommendations were made:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Gender balanced curriculum and education policies should be established. Such curriculum must consider the interest of the girl-child so that she is motivated to learn.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Girl-child hawking should be stopped through public enlightenment and legislation.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Parents should be educated on the values of modern education to the girl-child.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Awareness should be made to sensitize people on the fact that an end can only come to poverty cycle through educating the girl-child. The reality is that an uneducated girl that marries early also gives her child in marriage very early; so she becomes a grandmother who eventually has to fend for her grand-children who could not be adequately supported by (her daughter) their mother. Thus, the unmerciful cycle of poverty continues.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Parents should take advantage of the UBE programme and educate their girl-children.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Government at all levels, NGOs, media houses should be involved in awareness programme on the education of the girl-child.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Women should be given the opportunity to formulate and help execute policies especially those relating to girls/women.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- The girl-child should be sensitized as to the importance of her being educated so as to fight for her rights.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- The government at all levels should legislate the rights of the girl-child.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;">- Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- The concept of the girl-child should be improved through education. They should be made to see themselves as being capable of doing what the male child is able to do.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Gender inequalities that leave girl-children with limited educational opportunities should be readdressed.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Traditional practices that deny girl-children of their rights thereby leaving them poor and forcing them to turn to sex for survival and in the process of which HIV/AIDS is contracted should be addressed.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Programmes that promote girl-child education should be promoted in all our communities.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">- Each educated individual should spread the message of the girl-child education and raise awareness on this issue.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCE

<p style="line-height: normal;">Abacha, S. (1997): My Vision. In E.U. Moses (ed) 1997, ECPER Journal V (1) 26-36, Kaduna, Umma House.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Adedokun, M.O. (1998): ''The role of Community Education in Sustainable Community Development Project in Oyo State 1987-1996. ''(Ph.D Thesis) Ibadan, University of Ibadan.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Akali, Z. (2000). “Female Empowerment and National Development: a Perspective” in Nigeria Journal of Development. 1(1&2), 1-11.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Anyanwu C.N. (1992): Community Development: The Nigerian Perspective Ibadan, Gabesther Publishers.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Awe, B. (1992). (ed.): Nigerian Women in Historical Perspectives, Lagos Sankorel Bookcraft.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Esomonu, P.M. (ed). 1999: Women Education for Active Participation in the Next Millennium WICE Book of Readings Akwa, MARPAJ Educational Research Publishers.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Federal Republic of Nigeria (1996) Advancement of Nigerian Women and the Role of National and International Agencies, Kaduna, the Regent (Printing and Publishing Ltd.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Howard, C.C. (1991) Theories of General Education: A Critical Approach, Hong-Kong, Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Human Rights and the Girl-Child: The People’s Movement for Human Rights .www.humanrights.org (Accessed 26/06/2005)

<p style="line-height: normal;">Indabawa S.A. (1998) “Sixteen Theses on Women and Education” in Omolewa, M. et al eds, Retrospect and Renewal: The State of Adult Education Research in Africa. Dakar: UNESCO-BREDA.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Indabawa, S.A. (2004), “On some Socio-Cultural Determinants of Girls’ Involvement in Education in Nigeria” in The African Symposium 4(1)pp 34-45, March.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Kofi Annan (2001): “Building a Partnership for Girl’s Education”, World Education Forum Dakar, 26th April 2001 in www.wusc.ca.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Lassa, P.N. (1996) “A Forward in Teacher Education: “An imperative for National Development” (ED) Kaduna National Commission for Colleges of Education.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Obanya, Pai (2003) “Girls and Women’s Education: A Perspective on the Challenges in Nigeria” in Fagbulu, I. and Aderinoye, R. eds. Nigerian Private Sector and Girls Education. Abuja: UNESCO 31-48.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Omolewa M.A. (1985). Adult Education Practice in Nigeria, Ibadan, Evans Brothers (Nigeria Publishers) Limited.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Stop Child Poverty (2007): Health Concern: HIV/AIDS Accessed (

<p style="line-height: normal;">www.stopchildpoverty.org/learn/bigpicture/education/girlchild.php (Accessed 20/5/2007)

<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;">Adedokun, Mary Olufunke et al.,: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 25 - 31, 2010

<p style="line-height: normal;">Stop Child Poverty: Child Labour (2002). www.stopchildpoverty.org/learn/bigpicture/education/girlchild.php.

<p style="line-height: normal;">The National Conference in Education for All at Abuja (1993) in Adedokun M.O. (1998) The Role of Community Education in Sustainable Community Development. (Ph.D Thesis) Ibadan, University of Ibadan.

<p style="line-height: normal;">Ukeje, B.O. (2000) Teacher Education in Nigeria: Current Status. 21st Century Challenges and Strategies for Improvement in Akinmade, C.T. Oyetunji, et al (Eds) Improving Teacher Education in 21st Century Nigeria: Challenges and Strategies Jos: Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Jos.

<p style="text-align: left; line-height: normal;">UnitedNations Fourth Conference on Women, Beijing 1995 – www.un.org/womanwatch/daw/beijing/platform/girl.html. (Accessed - 17-10-07).

<p style="line-height: normal;">www.wusc.ca “Supporting Girls Education”. (Accessed – 17-10-2007).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 20/08/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 25/09/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding author

Adedokun, Mary Olufunke

Faculty of Education, University of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria

E-Mail: [mailto:mumf432000@yahoo.Com mumf432000@yahoo.com]

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">JOSEPH OMOREGBE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE AND THE IMPERATIVENESS OF THE 2009 ASUU STRIKE: IMPLICATIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE HIGHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster

<p style="text-align: center;">Directorate of General Studies, Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The higher education sub-sector in the Nigerian educational system has experienced various set-backs in the recent past. The most memorable is the 2009 ASUU strike which held down academic activities in the nation’s universities for over three months. It was yet one of such endless face-off between Academic Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) as a result of the refusal of the FGN to sign an agreement reached between the duo in 2001. The strike apart from holding down academic activities in the federation, affected various aspects of the nation’s socio-economic cum political lives. While some put blames on ASUU, others blamed the FGN. Though the strike was called off at the end, its consequential effects are still memorable. The aftermath of the strike is another thing to be worried about. The issues to contend with in this article therefore are: i) Will the 2009 ASUU strike be the last in the life of the country’s higher education system? ii) Did the strike yield any positive or negative result? iii) Did ASUU achieve its aims of embarking on the strike? The outcome of the study reveals that both the FGN and ASUU were responsible for the incessant and prolonged strikes that have crippled the nation’s tertiary education system. The study recommends among others that, the constitution and the Rule of Law should be guiding principles by both parties in order to safeguard the collapse of the nation’s tertiary education system. The methodology adopted in this study is strictly the philosophical with Joseph Omoregbe’s Philosophy of Civil Disobedience as the tool for evaluation.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: Civil Disobedience, ASUU Strike, Insensibility, Sustainability, Higher Education

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The purpose of university education is to help produce competent work force that will help contribute to the growth and develop of the society in all spheres of life: educationally, economically, socially, religiously, politically and otherwise. This laudable goal of Nigerian universities cannot be, and have not been perfectly attained in the event of unstable university educational system in the Nigerian society as a result of government’s insensitivity in directing required attention to the university education system in Nigeria. It is to curb this negligence, staff of Nigerian universities resort mostly, to the use of the non-violent instrument of civil disobedience (strike action) to drive home their demands which in-turn are geared towards a sustainable university system in Nigeria. Since when two elephants fight it is the grasses that suffer; the students and of course those who depend on the university community for their daily bread are adversely affected.

<p style="text-align: justify;">For instance, the 2009 ASUU strike which lasted for over three months though was peaceful, resulted in the loss of lives of some students: first those who had to travel back to their homes and some others who indulged in criminal activities as a result of the idleness imposed on them by the suspension of academic activities by university lecturers occasioned by government’s nonchalance and insensitivity. In the same vein, the economic life of those who depended on the university system for survival was crippled. Likewise, expectations of parents and guardians were caught short, as the expected years of their ward(s)’ graduation was becoming a mirage.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Certain salient issues were raised in the course of the length of the 2009 ASUU strike: while some questioned the rationale for the strike, others were interested in the outcome. Similarly, some others pondered on the consequential effect of the strike to the students, the lecturers, the government and the larger society.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Since research undertakings are aimed at proffering solutions to problems, this researcher is interested in critically examining the contending issues as highlighted earlier to investigate the legality and rationality of the 2009 AUU strike and proffer lasting solutions towards achieving a sustainable university education in the country. While employing the philosophical approaches of analyses, applications and speculation, the study will adopt Joseph Omoregbe’s Philosophy of Civil Disobedience as the instrument of judgment.

<p style="text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">WHAT IS CIVIL DISOBDIENCE?

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to the Encarta Dictionaries (2008), civil disobedience means “the deliberate breaking of a law by ordinary citizens, carried out as nonviolent protest or passive resistance”. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003) defined civil disobedience as “when people, especially a large group of people, refuse to obey a law in order to protest in a peaceful way against the government”. To Omoregbe (1994) “Civil disobedience is the right of the individual or group of people to oppose unjust and oppressive positive laws”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Civil disobedience cannot be adequately discussed without making reference to Thoreau (1848) who stated that, “people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences, and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such acquiescence to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice”. He gave this advice when he gave a lecture titled "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The term “civil disobedience” however was made popular in 1849, when he (Thoreau) published an article titled: “Resistance to Civil Government” in a magazine with the title; Aesthetic Papers. According to Buber Martin (1962) “This essay was later reprinted in a collection of Thoreau's work (A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers) under the title Civil Disobedience, by which it is most popularly known today”.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In defining what civil disobedience, one may be interested to know why it must be termed civil disobedience, why not public disobedience? The word civil in this context connotes that which is “relating to citizens and their interrelations with one another or with the state", while disobedience from its natural meaning has to do with “not adhering to a giving instruction”. In this context therefore, civil disobedience implies "disobedience to the state authorities". Civil in this context does not mean, "Adhering to or observing accepted social forms or being polite".

<p style="text-align: justify;">Civil disobedience had been employed by several notable persons all over the world to check the excesses of governments. Among such persons include the popular former American civil-rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. During the 1950s and 60s he led numerous peaceful marches, boycotts, and sit-ins in the United States of America which made him to achieve international fame. Another apostle of civil disobedience is Mohandas Gandhi an Indian then in South Africa who employed civil disobedience to gain Indian rights in South Africa and later won independence for India. Gandhi developed the idea of satyagraha which means “holding to truth” Satyagraha is an act of civil disobedience marked by Indians and it is characterized by high moral standards and sense of self-discipline. Attracting a huge number of followers from the Indian public, Gandhi was able to use the technique as an effective political tool and play a key role in bringing about the British decision to end colonial rule of his homeland.

<p style="text-align: justify;">JOSEPH OMORGBE’S PHLOSOPHY OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: AN OVERVIEW

<p style="text-align: justify;">Omoregbe started his philosophy of civil disobedience by stating that civil disobedience is a right enshrined in the natural law and is to be enjoyed by citizens of a state. As a natural right therefore, its violation by constituted authorities, results when such authority promulgates a law, enacts a decree or formulates a policy that is at variance with the natural law or right of the common-man, especially when such law is intended to frustrate the right of the citizenry to civil disobedience. As Omoregbe rightly puts it; “Citizens have the right to arrest any attempt by the state to deprive them of their natural rights through legislation, decree or by any other means.” From the foregoing therefore, in any state or society, those in authority tend to deliberately make laws (positive laws) or policies that are at variance with the natural law. Natural laws are God-given; as such any other positive law that goes contrary to the natural law becomes null and void and can be disobeyed.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Arguing further, Omoregbe stated that, “… when two laws are in conflict, the higher one overrides the lower one which automatically becomes null and void and losses its binding force” This is also the viewpoint of Lloyd (1964) when he opined that:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Not only does such a higher law override and nullify the actual rules of a particular society which are shown to violate it, but it follows from this conclusion that the individual citizen may be relieved from his duty to comply with the actual law, and even posses a lawful basis for revolt against the legitimate authority of the state.

<p style="text-align: justify;">One of the rights to be enjoyed by the citizens of a country (Nigeria inclusive), is to resist oppression. As such, ASUU’s reaction to government’s nonchalance could be reasoned to mean an attempt to resist government

<p style="text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">oppression of not trying to implement an earlier agreed term. But the question is this: did ASUU follow the due processes of civil disobedience?

<p style="text-align: justify;">Omoregbe in his philosophy of civil disobedience suggested a procedural three steps of action to be considered before embarking on such action:

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">i. The first step that citizens should take in such a situation of conflict between the natural law and the government law or policy is to point out to the government that its law (or policy) is in conflict with the natural law. This should be done in a number of ways: it could be through writing …

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ii. If, however the government (king, emperor, president, Prime Minister, as the case May be) having been informed that its law is in conflict with the natural law, continuous to insist on its observance, the citizens should simply let the government know that they are morally obliged to obey God (nature) rather than man. That is, to obey the natural law (a higher law) rather than its own law; which is in conflict with it.

<p style="text-align: justify;">This viewpoint is supported by Fellman (1971) who described such laws or policies as “violative acts” and the show of “raw powers”

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iii. If government goes on to use brute force – the police force, the military force or any other force, to compel the citizens to comply with the immoral, unjust or oppressive law or policy, then it has gone out of the realm of legality, civility, legitimacy and reasonableness and has resorted to brute force ….

<p style="text-align: justify;">Critically examining the strike it is obvious that ASUU exhausted all the available avenues before embarking on the strike. There were negotiations and renegotiations between 2001 and 2009, there were also series of warnings in the form of writing an ultimatum, etc which suffice the three steps prescribed by Omoregbe.

<p style="text-align: justify;">OBJECTIVES OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Omoregbe (1994), civil disobedience is not intended at all for ulterior political ambition. It is not an act directed towards change of government, neither is it meant to overthrow incumbent government, nor is it aimed at arousing civil unrest for effective lawlessness. As he rightly puts it:

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">The aim of Civil Disobedience is not, of course, to overthrow the government or to cause a breakdown of law and order in the society. The aim is to persuade the government in a peaceful manner to withdraw an unjust, or oppressive policy, or to repeal a law that is in conflict with the natural law- an unjust or oppressive law, in the interest of justice, peace and happiness of the citizens. This is the ultimate aim of civil disobedience, and this is why it has to be carried out in a peaceful manner, never in a violent manner.

<p style="text-align: justify;">From this viewpoint of Omoregbe, it is evident that, the intention of civil disobedience is to make government reconsider or abrogate its unjust laws, policies and decisions (nonchalance in this case) which are at variance with the natural law.

<p style="text-align: justify;">One is compelled to agree with Omoregbe that if civil disobedience has ulterior motive, it is no longer civil disobedience but sabotage which is itself illegal and of course morally unacceptable. In the same vein, if civil disobedience is not peaceful protest but destructive and harmful, then it has become rivalry party in disguise and the instrumentation to antagonism and lawlessness. In this case, government will be justified to defend itself against this internal enemy.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As emphasized by Omoregbe, the ultimate purpose and reason for civil disobedience must be to persuade government to renege from its initial unfriendly decision, law or policy for the benefit of all. No wonder ASUU went into negotiation and renegotiation stages with the FGN among other persuasive means.

<p style="text-align: justify;">THE 2009 ASUU STRIKE AND OMOREGBE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: ANY DEVIANCE?

<p style="text-align: justify;">The intrinsic and essential elements of civil disobedience, for Joseph Omoregbe include legality, peacefulness, common good, public act, due process and persuading government to withdraw or compromise its position. Critically analyzing the nature of the 2009 ASUU strike, does it fulfill the above conditions of civil disobedience?

<p style="text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">To be precise, was the strike legal? Was it a public act? Was it for the common good of all in the society? Was it peaceful? In sum, did the 2009 ASUU strike meet all the essentials of civil disobedience as postulated by Joseph Omoregbe? These fundamental questions shall be technically resolved as we examine the appriori and aposteriori conditions of the strike.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Legality of the Strike

<p style="text-align: justify;">To establish the legality of the 2009 ASUU strike, one is tempted to ask if the strike was a right of the lecturers. According to Hogan (2006), a right is “a legitimate or socially recognized moral to or legal justification for an individual to be allowed specific behavior or to demand specified behaviour of others with regards to himself.” Omoregbe (1994) stated that the chapter four of the Nigerian 1999 Constitution deals with Human Rights and draws a good deal from the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” as promulgated by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. A critical perusal of the Nigerian constitution indicates that civil disobedience is legal. This legality therefore makes it a right of any citizen of the country, ASUU inclusive. This legality of civil disobedience makes it a right of the Nigerian University lecturers to embark on such strike if all the prescribed steps have been exhausted. Since the 2009 strike was an aspect of civil disobedience, it was therefore legal and of course, a right of the Nigerian universities’ lecturers.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Necessity of the 2009 Strike

<p style="text-align: justify;">Many viewpoints have been severally raised as to whether the strike was necessary or not. As Nwandu (2009) puts it, “ASUU should be blamed for the lingering strike[…] if they are not contented with what government is offering they should look elsewhere for their source of income” According to Egwu (2009): “Only suspension of the strike by ASUU can facilitate discussion with its officials”. In the view of Kayode (2009)”there is a limit to rigidity in any demand”

<p style="text-align: justify;">The above views among others appear very convincing and one may be tempted to agree that the 2009 ASUU strike was unnecessary and over prolonged. And that ASUU was too rigid in its decision. However, a critical introspection into the following arguments will convince one that the strike was unequivocally pertinent and necessary for the general growth and development of the Nigerian society:

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">i. The Federal Government’s 7-points Agenda and Vision 20:2020

<p style="text-align: justify;">The products of the universities are the future man power of the country that will contribute to the achievement of the Federal Government’s 7-point agenda and vision 2020. But how could these agenda of government be achieved in the nearest future when academic activities in the universities would be left uncared for by the same government?

<p style="text-align: justify;">To this end Eneuvie (2009) decried:

<p style="text-align: justify;">You know! It is a sad truth that our government is yet to realize the importance of education in national development. A country that wishes to develop cannot do so without recognizing the place of education and if the government really wants to achieve its lofty dream of “Vision 2020”, then it must radically begin to revolutionize its values and reorder its priority in so far as education is concerned; ….

<p style="text-align: justify;">ASUU is not strike crazy. The future of the nations education needed to be protected and university lecturers who are the custodians of this education needed to protect it hence they have to utilize strike as a tool after every other means have failed to check government’s excesses.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ii. To Avoid the Unilateral Abrogation of the 2001 Agreement

<p style="text-align: justify;">The 2001 bilateral agreement between ASUU and the FGN was not an imposition on either party. Both parties conscientiously entered into the agreement after various meetings, negotiations and renegotiations, consultations, debates, etc. As such if the FGN refused to sign the agreement, it will amount to the unilateral abrogation of the agreement. It was to avoid this unilateral abrogation of the agreement which of course was a form of oppression and needed to be checked, that the 2009 strike was effected.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iii. Re-positioning the University Educational System

<p style="text-align: justify;">University education and education in general in Nigeria is said to be falling in standard. For instance, research has shown that no Nigerian University is ranked among the world’s first 1000 universities. Even in the so-called “jet age”, Nigeria is still referred to as a developing country after several decades of its independence and as the “Giant

<p style="text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">of Africa.” This backwardness can only be checked when the University education system is stable, dependable and adequately sustained. Consequent upon this, the 2009 strike was a necessary tool to make the government sign the agreement and to avoid related strike actions in the country to avoid any set-back to the education sector.

<p style="text-align: justify;">ACHIAEVEMENTS OF THE 2009 ASUU STRIKE

<p style="text-align: justify;">The three months strike embarked upon by academic staff of Universities, did it yield any positive result? Before considering the achievements of the strike, one cannot easily forget the efforts of the former labour leader, Adams Oshiomole who was able to bring the two parties together to the negotiation table to reach consensus, and which of course lead to the eventual signing of the most contentious agreement on Wednesday, 21 October 2009. Although many negative effects resulted from the strike, one cannot rightly say that ASUU’s demand was not met.

<p style="text-align: justify;">To recount the laudable achievements of ASUU, Idoko (2009) highlighted the following achievements and were summarized by the researcher:

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">i. The minimum allocation of 26 percent of the annual budget to education as prescribed by UNESCO was implemented.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ii. Autonomy was granted to the universities as demanded by the union.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iii. A 70 years retirement age for universities’ professors was approved which was also part of ASUU demands.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iv. Considering the dynamic nature of education, a proposal for the amendment of the JAMB Act, National Minimum Standard and Establishment of Institutions Act and the National Universities Commission (NUC) Act 2004 were forwarded to the National Assembly.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">v. ASUU also clarified that that the agreement was binding on all Universities-State of Federal. An indication that their demand was not one-sided.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">vi. Before the strike was even called-off, the Education Trust Fund (ETF) was refocused by government to specifically intervene in providing enabling environment for teaching and learning in Nigerian tertiary institutions. For instance, the sum of N4 billion was approved, to be funded by the ETF, as special intervention fund for the upgrading of six universities with one selected from each of the six geopolitical zones in the country.

<p style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">It is pertinent to note here that the 2009 ASUU strike was not intended to benefit the educational sector only but for the overall wellbeing of all in the society. The fact is that education is the life-wire of the development of any human society. Any authority of a state or society that claims to be developing its society without any tangible impact on the education sector is doomed to fail. ASUU went on strike so that the problems in the education sector (universities) should be solved once and for all. And since the government became adamant and insensitive to that fact they have to use civil disobedience as a tool to check the government. Of course the results were laudable and the vision 2020 of the Federal government can now be made possible, as education will lay the foundation for its possibility and success.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATON

<p style="text-align: justify;">This paper has been able to examine the 2009 ASUU strike taking into consideration its legality and necessity in relation to Joseph Omoregbe’s Philosophy of Civil Disobedience. The research revealed that although strikes are the right of citizens and are means of making government to compromise her decision and to effect justice, it has a lot of negative effects on the society as a whole and on the university system. Based on this revelations and discovery therefore, the following recommendations were made:

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">i. Before policies are made by government or any authority, the masses should be adequately carried along by sending memoranda to seek their contributions and suggestions and their views be judiciously considered.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ii. The rule of law should be the guiding principle to all since no one is above the law. In order words, both ASUU and the FGN should respect the rule of law.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iii. The Constitution should be well consulted before making any policy for the citizens.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">iv. Citizenship as an academic course should be made compulsory at all levels of the nation’s education to educate the public of their rights.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">v. Philosophy of Law should be made a compulsory course in all tertiary institutions.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: center;">Enomah, Sylverster: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 32 - 37, 2010

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">vi. Specifically, government should place priority on the development of University education; university functionaries on their part should try to be considerate in their demands in order to achieve a sustainable university system in the country.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">vii. ASUU on their part should also endeavor to gain financial independence on their own through the production of goods and services for self sustenance.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">viii. Government should promptly hold on to agreements reached between her and workers to avoid breakdown of law and order in the public service.

<p style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">ix. Financial autonomy should be granted to all universities to enable them cater for their problems.

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is sincerely believed that if the above recommendations are considered, strike and other civil disturbances will be reduced to the barest minimum if not totally eradicated.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Buber, Martin (1962): Man's Duty as Man from Thoreau in Our Season University of Massachusetts Press

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Egwu, Sam (2009): Lingering ASUU strike: Where does the blame lie? Source: www.news.dailytrust.com/.../index.php?...asuu-strike.. Sept 2

<p style="text-align: justify;">Encarta Dictionary (2008)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Eneuvie (2009)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fellman D. (1971): Ideologies and Modern politics, New York: Dodd Mead and Company.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hogan, M. O. (2006): Dictionary of Sociology. New Delhi: Academic publishers.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Idoko, Clement (2009): FG ASUU In Crutial Talks - ASUU may Call Off Strke Today.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Source: www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-338511.0.html October 6

===Kayode, Prince Tokunbo (2009): Lingering ASUU strike: Where does the blame lie?===

Source: www.news.dailytrust.com/.../index.php? Sept. 2
<p style="text-align: justify;">LIoyd, D. (1964): The Idea of Law. London, Penguin Books

<p style="text-align: justify;">Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nwandu, Austin (2009): Lingering ASUU strike: Where does the blame lie?

<p style="text-align: justify;">Source: www.news.dailytrust.com/.../index.php?... Sept. 2

<p style="text-align: justify;">Omoregbe, J. (1994): An Introduction to Philosophical Jurispudence: Philosophy of Law. Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers Limited.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Thoreau, H. D. (1848): Letter to R. W. Emerson 23 February

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 20/10/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 10/11/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">APPRAISAL OF HOWARD GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES’ (MI) THEORY:

<p style="text-align: center;">IMPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGY AND COUNSELLING PRACTICE IN NIGERIA

<p style="margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: 36pt;">Donald A. Odeleye

<p style="text-align: center;">Faculty of Education, Leads City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

<p style="text-align: center;">[mailto:bodeleye@gmail.com bodeleye@gmail.com]

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Over the ages, educators and parents perceived that individual differences in children could also imply differences in learning styles. In keeping with the position that no individual is without some specific gifting, Howard Gardner propounded the Multiple Intelligences Theory in 1983. The MI theory has since been a theme of many research works, conferences and symposia globally. However, the MI theory has not been without its antagonists and challenges in its application to classroom situations are several. Whereas in Europe, North America and parts of Asia, school systems, schools and individual teachers have been working and experimenting to adapt the theory at different levels and scopes in optimizing effective pedagogic service delivery, its application is still green in Nigeria. It is the contention of this author that even though the MI theory is quite desirable in facilitating high learning outcomes and raising education standards, its cost-effectiveness and affordability, especially in developing economies, is questionable. This paper submits, among others, that in applying the MI Theory in therapeutic interventions, the counsellor’s versatility is going to be thoroughly challenged.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">KEYWORDS: Individual Differences, Multiple Intelligences, Counsellor, Teacher

<p style="text-align: justify;">INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">This paper is an overview of one of the most striking challenges to the traditional scientific view of what constitutes human intelligence and how it can be objectively measured, Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner's MI theory has been gaining global prominence through its successful application in a number of experimental educational projects. There are about fifty books on the topic and probably the same number of people who make a living partly from giving talks on the subject (Davies 1996). It is posited that intelligence is not just a one-sided phenomenon but it includes a range of seven distinct groups of skills, talents, and ways of dealing with the world around us (Gardner 1983). By finding methods of developing and measuring each separate type of intelligence, Gardner believes that schools can produce more completely realized individuals and encourage students to develop their fullest possible potential. His ideas have not yet been widely accepted in western education, but they offer a paradigm shift in education service delivery.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The concept of measuring human intelligence along a consistently applied scale is a distinctly twentieth century idea. It was French psychologist Alfred Binet who devised the first widely used test of intelligence in 1905 which the scientific community as a whole came very quickly to accept while refining and adding to the specific methodology for such testing. However, Gardner (1983) arguing that "reason, intelligence, logic, knowledge are not synonymous. . ." proposed a view of intelligence that is rapidly being incorporated in school curricula. In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner expanded the concept of intelligence to also include such areas as music, spatial relations, and interpersonal knowledge in addition to mathematical and linguistic ability. Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner and Hatch, 1989). Using biological and cultural concepts, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view which usually recognizes only two intelligences, the verbal and the mathematical.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The seven (7) intelligences Gardner defines are:

<p style="text-align: justify;">Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

<p style="text-align: justify;">This consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

<p style="text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Linguistic Intelligence

<p style="text-align: justify;">This involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Spatial Intelligence

<p style="text-align: justify;">This gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains-- Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Musical Intelligence

<p style="text-align: justify;">It encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence

<p style="text-align: justify;">This is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements. This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activities are unrelated.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Personal Intelligences

<p style="text-align: justify;">It includes interpersonal intelligence (which is the ability to understand and discern the feelings and intentions of others) and intrapersonal intelligence that is the ability to understand one's own feelings and motivations, indeed ability to master oneself. These two intelligences are separate from each other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in most cultures, they are often linked together.

Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the seven intelligences very rarely operate independently. Gardner submits that the intelligences are used complementarily and concurrently as individuals develop skills or solve problems. For example, a dancer can do well in his art only if he has

1) strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music, 2) interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his rhythmic movements, as well as 3) bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the movements successfully.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Basis for Intelligence

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The position of Gardner is that there are both biological and cultural bases for the multiple intelligences. Indeed, neurobiological research indicates that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the synaptic connections between cells. Primary elements of different types of learning are found in particular areas of the brain where corresponding transformations have occurred. Thus, various types of learning result in synaptic connections in different areas of the brain. For example, injury to the Broca's area of the brain will result in the loss of one's ability to verbally communicate using proper syntax. Nevertheless, this injury will not remove the patient's understanding of correct grammar and word usage. Scientists used to think that the brain was hardwired at a very early age and set for the rest of life (that is what is called pruning). However, this assumption is only partially true today. Pruning does take place at an early age, but research has confirmed that nerves continue to grow throughout one’s life. It is quite possible to teach old dogs a few new tricks after all! This is a huge discovery and has implications for life-long learning.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">As with any new learning, frustration seems to follow, as in the case of learning to drive stick-shift (manual) car. There is a period of time when the body is unable to do what the mind wants it to do. Individuals get emotional. From brain research, it is established that when we get emotional about a task we are involved in learning. Brain research has confirmed that emotions are linked to learning by assisting us in recall of memories that are stored in our central nervous system. Emotions originate in the midbrain or what has been termed the limbic system and the neo-mammalian brain. Sensory information is relayed to the thalamus in the midbrain, which acts as a relay station to the sensory cortex, auditory cortex, etc. When sensory information reaches the amygdala, another structure in the midbrain, that sensory information is evaluated as either a threat or not, creating the familiar fight or flight response

<p style="text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">– the physiological response of stress. This information is only then relayed to the frontal cortex, our higher cognitive functions, where we take the appropriate action.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">How does information from the midbrain reach the frontal cortex? Chemicals and neurotransmitters are released into the endocrine system which is connected to synapses, altering, colouring and intensifying our conscious experience of a situation. Emotions aid in memory retention (learning) of this situation as being good or bad. Decreasing threat ("driving our fear", mistrust, anxiety and competition) through cooperation, providing safe places, and providing a motivational climate for positive emotions ensure that learning will be retained.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">However, brain research also suggests that the brain learns best when confronted with a balance between stress and comfort; between high challenge and low threat. The brain normally needs some challenge, or some environmental press that generates stress as described above to activate emotions and learning. This is because stress motivates a survival imperative in the brain. Too much stress and anxiety shuts down opportunities for learning. When there is too little stress, the brain becomes too relaxed and comfortable to become actively engaged. The phrase used to describe the brain state for optimal learning is that of relaxed-alertness. Practically speaking, this means that educators need to create places that are not only safe to learn, but also spark some emotional interest through celebrations and interactions.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Another general finding from brain research is that the brain is a pattern maker. Pattern making is a pleasing emotional experience for the brain. The brain takes great pleasure in taking random and chaotic information and ordering it. The implications for learning and instruction is that presenting a learner with random and unordered information provides the maximum opportunity for the brain to order this information and form meaningful patterns that will be remembered, thus, will be learned. Setting up a learning environment in this way mirrors real life that is often random and chaotic.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">The brain, when allowed to express its pattern-making behaviour, creates coherency and meaning. Learning is best accomplished when the learning activity is connected directly to physical experience. Individuals remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory, in real-life activity, in experiential learning. We learn by doing. Applying findings of neuroscience related to coherency and meaning may suggest that learning could be facilitated in an environment of total immersion in a multitude of complex interactive experiences. This could also include traditional instructional methods of lecture and analysis as part of this larger experience.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Interaction of the brain with its environment suggests that the more enriched environment, the more enriched brain. It has been suggested that an enriched environment can contribute up to a 25% increase in the number of brain connections both early and later in life (Kotulak 1996). The environments we live in need to allow for active manipulation.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">To summarize, there are at least twelve principles of brain-compatible learning that have emerged from brain research.
 * 1) Uniqueness – every single brain is totally unique.
 * 2) Impact of threat or high stress can alter and impair learning and even kill brain cells
 * 3) Emotions are critical to learning – they drive our attention, health, learning, meaning and memory.
 * 4) Information is stored and retrieved through multiple memory and neural pathways
 * 5) All learning is mind-body – movement, foods, attentional cycles, drugs and chemicals all have powerful modulating effects on learning.
 * 6) The brain is a complex and adaptive system – effective change involves the entire complex system
 * 7) Patterns and programmes drive our understanding – intelligence is the ability to elicit and to construct useful patterns.
 * 8) The brain is meaning-driven – This means that meaning is more important to the brain than information.
 * 9) Learning is often rich and non-conscious – people process both parts and wholes simultaneously and are affected a great deal by peripheral influences.
 * 10) The brain develops better in concert with other brains – intelligence is valued in the context of the society in which we live.
 * 11) Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010


 * 1) The brain develops with various stages of readiness.
 * 2) Enrichment – the brain can grow new connections at any age. Complex, challenging experiences with feedback are best. Cognitive skills develop better with music and motor skills.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to biology, Gardner (1983) argues that culture also plays a large role in the development of the intelligences. All societies value different types of intelligences. The cultural value placed upon the ability to perform certain tasks provides the motivation to become skilled in those areas. Thus, while particular intelligences might be highly evolved in many people of one culture, those same intelligences might not be as developed in the individuals of another. For instance, it is suggested that given their peculiar nutrition and culture of martial arts, Asians are generally fitter and may perform better than Africans in sports such as karate, taekwondo and even football. On the other hand, Africans seem to be better developed in the performing arts and entertainment. This is quite evident in the plethora of blacks in dance, drama, music and folklore. An unconfirmed position is that nutrition may also account for individual differences in intelligence.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Implications of Multiple Intelligences for Education Service Delivery

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in terms of classroom instruction. The theory states that all seven intelligences are needed to productively function in society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as equally important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligences. Thus, in applying the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, educators should seek to recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Another implication is that teachers would need to structure the presentation of material in a style which engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the revolutionary war, a teacher can show students battle maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and have the students read a novel about life during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students about learning, but it also allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide assortment of intelligences, teaching in this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject material.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The teacher must have it settled in his heart that everyone is born possessing several intelligences. Nevertheless, all students will come into the classroom with different levels of developed intelligences. This means that each child will have his own unique set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how easy (or difficult) it is for a student to learn information when it is presented in a particular manner. This is commonly referred to as a learning style. Many learning styles can be found within one classroom. Therefore, it is impossible, as well as impractical, for a teacher to accommodate every lesson to all of the learning styles found within the classroom. Nevertheless the teacher can show students how to use their more developed intelligences to assist in the understanding of a subject which normally employs their weaker intelligences (Lazear, 1992). For example, the teacher can suggest that an especially musically intelligent child learn about the competitive sport of Fencing by making up a song about what happened.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The MI theory has been adapted and interpreted by many intermediate writers who have made it easy for both teachers and parents to see the value of the concept and its applicability to uses in the classroom. This broad range of interpretations at intermediary levels makes related techniques easy to understand and use by both student teachers and practising educators. Also, due to the proliferation of medial interpretations, related conference presentations and accessible classroom materials (in addition to associated articles for parents in current media in the western and eastern worlds) MI has become so popular that the concept has become much like a grassroots movement.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Also, the MI theory offers teachers assistance in helping students become empowered learners by extending and promoting cognitive bridging techniques based on the seven intelligences; by fostering deep metacognitive understanding; and by advancing suggestions for a broad array of diversified study skills techniques. Thus, it also aids teachers in easily creating more personalized and diversified instructional experiences.

<p style="text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">It is instructive to note that the MI theory helps teachers explain and promote understanding at intrapersonal, interpersonal and cultural levels.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The MI theory taps into students' intrinsic levels of motivation through natural talents, thus helps teachers construct self-motivating educational experiences and ones which help promote the concept of flow in the classroom.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The MI theory may validate teachers' insightful and intuitive assessments of students' natural talents and offers them justifications and assistance in creating related personalized educational accommodations and experiences.

<p style="text-align: justify;">It also provides teachers, parents and students with a more extensive and egalitarian conceptualization of giftedness. As Gardner (1983, 1993) repeatedly points out, perceptions of intelligence are often limited to tests which assess verbal-linguistic or mathematical-logical skills. Historically, programmes that service students who are designated as gifted are reflective of this narrow cultural and educational mindset. MI precepts categorically broaden categories of giftedness. Thus, programmes based on MI have the potential to include students having gifts, or combinations of gifts, from Gardner's other designated categories--bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and soon to be elaborated, naturalistic intelligence. This broadened array greatly appeals to those teachers and parents who hold a more egalitarian or comprehensive view that every child has a gift or combined gifts.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Through creating educational experiences based on natural talents and gifts, teachers are more likely to increase opportunities whereby students can become actively engaged in learning experiences that are pleasurable, heightened or magnified. Such experiences can be highly motivational

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Part of the artistry of teaching revolves around gut feelings and keen observational skills. However, sometimes teachers operating at levels of intuitive artistry are made to feel that their opinions and assessments of students are trivial, wrong or less valid when compared to profiles developed from verifiable and quantifiable types of traditional measures. In this context, knowledge of MI's definitions of intelligence helps to validate many teachers' qualitative or intuitive assessments of students.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">While the answers to understanding the educational popularity of MI Theory fully undoubtedly lie in many directions, the key issues to comprehending the theory's burgeoning acceptance seem to be related to the basic needs of teachers as they try to create more inclusive, affective and effective instruction. These basic teaching needs are primarily related to promoting understanding and appreciation among students, to creating classrooms where learners experience a sense of loving and belonging, to issues of fostering pupils' esteem, personal intellectual empowerment and self-motivation, and to helping teachers achieve more diversified instructional techniques. Simply, MI Theory is getting more relevant because it helps educators meet the needs of many different types of learners easily, and because it reflects teachers' and parents' deeply rooted philosophical beliefs that all children possess gifts and that part of the most important mission of schools is to foster positive personal development. Thus, teachers understanding and using MI theory, and its related educational frameworks and explanations of diversity, are being transformed into teachers who understand human patterns, human diversity and human learning at better, deeper, and more comprehensive levels.

<p style="text-align: justify;">MI Application in Nigeria & Implications for Counselling Practice

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Generally, applying MI theory in schools could be quite expensive and demanding. Instead of the traditional method, the teacher must now begin to teach in seven (7) different ways and must seek to accommodate every child in his teaching. This would definitely put some strain on the teacher but over some time, with versatility, he would be able to cope and really enjoy the whole experience. This would undoubtedly enhance academic performance of the students across board.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">However, there are several barriers to the successful application and acceptance of the MI theory in schools.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">1. Many parents may not value the MI approach to teaching since they may not understand how it can help their children to be better individual. 2. Educators, particularly administrators, are usually focused on short-term gains and standardized test results which centre on scholastic intelligences.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">3. Teachers may be quite reluctant to expend the time and energy necessary to bring MI to life in their classrooms. <p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">The good news is each of these obstacles can be addressed.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The counsellor holds the ace in facilitating more positive school-community relations. The counsellor is in the best position to help individuals develop positive self-concept and self-image. The counsellor is trained to help teachers and parents to optimise the parent-teacher conferences and open days. Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-confidence. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing learning in this manner allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning. The guidance counsellor would need to be up-to-date and quite versatile in the use of psychological inventories and tests in class placement and career advice for individual students.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Parent education, something which should be highly valued in any school, becomes a major priority in an MI school. Since it is certain that none of the students' parents will have attended an MI school, educators need to help them understand how the intelligences are used and that their children are learning. (Oddly, sometimes parents are the most sceptical about the soundness of an academic program because their children tell them that school is fun!) Signs in the halls, explanations on student work that is posted, weekly letters from the teachers and principal, parent education evenings, student portfolios, exhibitions and performances (PEPs) and framing parent-teacher conferences around the intelligences all contribute to parents understanding. It is not enough to entertain parents; they must be educated so that they understand how MI is used.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">As logical and simple as all of these steps may sound, however, they are difficult to do. This is primarily because most educators don't appreciate the value of educating parents. Too often the parent-teacher relationship becomes us versus them. Teachers, often with justification, fear that more parent communications will lead to more parent criticism. And all too often, when teachers do try to involve and educate their students' parents, the parents do not respond.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">To each of these hesitations, it could be argued that an MI approach facilitates teacher-parent communication. Parents who are critical of schools are often so because they are wary. Simply put, they aren't sure that their child is learning (or, worse, they know – they've been told – that their child isn't learning). When parents view their children's progress through an MI lens, however, the gains are quite obvious. By reviewing the contents of a child's portfolio, for example, or by attending (or seeing videotapes of) student presentations and performances, the gains are clear and striking. Over time, the enthusiasm and excitement about learning that is generated by an MI approach will result in students doing better on traditional measures as well.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Some teachers, of course, try to involve parents. They do all the right things, but still, despite their efforts, few parents come to school or get involved. It isn't that these parents love their children any less. It could be that these parents are unable to get away from work, that they don't have the flexibility to be present during the day (which is why sending home videos of students' performances and progress is good). But it may also be that these parents, themselves, struggled in school that for them, walking into the building is a reminder of their personal frustration and failure. (This is compounded if their children are having school difficulties. For regardless of how well we present our concerns, parents who hear that their children are failing also hear that they are failing as parents.) But by using MI, by offering parent nights in which the parents can engage in the same activities that students do during the day – use their intelligences – we can begin to chip away at some of the fear or cynicism that parents bring to the table.

<p style="text-align: justify;">CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">As the education system has stressed the importance of developing mathematical and linguistic intelligences, it often bases student success only on the measured skills in those two intelligences. Supporters of Gardner's Theory of

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Multiple Intelligences believe that this emphasis is unfair. Children whose musical intelligences are highly developed, for example, may be overlooked for gifted programs or may be placed in a special education class because they do not have the required math or language scores. Teachers must seek to assess their students' learning in ways which will give an accurate overview of the their strengths and weaknesses.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As children do not learn in the same way, they cannot be assessed in a uniform fashion. Therefore, it is important that a teacher create an "intelligence profiles" for each student. Knowing how each student learns will allow the teacher to properly assess the child's progress (Lazear, 1992). This individualized evaluation practice will allow a teacher to make more informed decisions on what to teach and how to present information.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Traditional tests (e.g. multiple choice, short answer, essay. . .) require students to show their knowledge in a predetermined manner. Supporters of Gardner's theory claim that a better approach to assessment is to allow students to explain the material in their own ways using the different intelligences. Preferred assessment methods include student portfolios, independent projects, student journals, and assigning creative tasks. An excellent source for a more in-depth discussion on these different evaluation practices is Lazear (1992).

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Armstrong, T. (1994 ) Multiple Intelligence in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: The Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Blythe, T., and Gardner H. (1990). A for all intelligences. Educational Leadership. 47(7), 33-37.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Brody, N. and Ehrlichman, H. (1997) Personality Psychology : Science of Individuality. Prentice Hall Press; A thoughtful introduction to the broad field of personality. Cooper, C. (1997) Individual Differences: London: Arnold A broad overview of the field that includes a review of measurement methodologies.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Csikszentmihaly, M. (1990 ) Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper/Collins.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Csikszentmihaly, M. (1996 ) Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper/Collins.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Davies, J. (1996) [On-line} "A reluctant guru on matters between the ears. Howard Gardner talks to John Davies about his theory of human intelligence." (Original published in The Thesis, January 19, 1996)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Eysenck, H.J. (1994) Personality: Biological foundations. In P.A. Vernon (Ed.) The neuropsychology of individual differences. London: Academic Press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Eysenck, H.J. and Eysenck, M.W (1985) Personality and individual differences: a natural science approach. Plenum: New York. Although dated, perhaps the best treatment of the scientific method as applied to the study of personality and individual differences.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Fogarty, R., and Stoehr, J. (1995). ''Integrating curricula with multiple intelligences. Teams, themes, and threads. K-''college. Palatine, IL: IRI Skylight Publishing Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service ED No. 383 435)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Gardner, H. (1983). ''Frames of Mind. ''New York: Basic Book Inc.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Gardner, H. (1991) The unschooled mind: how children think and how schools should teach.New York: Basic Books Inc.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Gardner, H., and Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-9.

<p style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">Donald A. Odeleye: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 38 - 45, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Hogan, R., Johnson, J. and Briggs, S. (Eds) (1997) Handbook of Personality Psychology. San Diego: Academic Press. The definitive handbook of the field includes chapters on evolutionary, biological, and social bases of individual differences.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Jensen, A.R. (1998) The G Factor : The science of mental ability. Westport, Conn. Praeger Review of the importance of general intelligence for performance on tasks.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Kornhaber, M., and Gardner, H. (1993, March). ''Varieties of excellence: identifying and assessing children's talents. A series on authentic assessment and accountability.'' New York: Columbia University, Teachers College, National Center for Restructuring Education, Schools, and Teaching. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 363 396)

Kotulak Ronald (1996) Inside the Brain. Andrew and McMeel. Missouri, USA

<p style="text-align: justify;">Lazear, David. (1991). ''Seven ways of teaching: The artistry of teaching with multiple intelligences. ''Palatine, IL: IRI Skylight Publishing Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 382 374)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Lazear, David (1992). ''Teaching for Multiple Intelligences. Fastback 342'' Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappan Educational Foundation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 356 227)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Loehlin, J.C. (1992) Genes and environment in personality development. Newbury Park, Ca. Sage. A concise tutorial on genetic modelling and personality taxonomies.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Martin, W.C. (1995, March). Assessing multiple intelligences. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Conference on Educational Assessment, Ponce, PR. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 385 368)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Saklofske, D. H. and Zeidner, M. (1995). International handbook of personality and intelligence. New York: Plenum.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">Wiggins, G. and McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding By Design. ASCD: Alexandria, VA. http://www.springhurst.org/articles/MItheory.htm retrieved on Wednesday, 04 November, 2009 at 12.30am

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 20/10/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 10/12/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 46 - 50, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4092

<p style="text-align: justify;">©Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

<p style="text-align: center;">THE RELEVANCE OF FRENCH LANGUAGE TO NATION BUILDING IN NIGERIA

<p style="text-align: center;">Obi, Ogwezi Abel and Agbagbatu, Samuel Oghenekaro

<p style="text-align: center;">Directorate of General Studies, Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, Delta State, Nigeria.

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt;">ABSTRACT

<p style="margin: 0cm 17pt 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">Nation building is not a simple task, it is a collective effort put together by everybody in all strata of the society. No nation is ever built around one area or sphere of human endeavour. While embarking on the Herculean task of building, language matters a lot because during the process of building, the builders must communicate. Looking at Nigeria with all her neighbours French speaking countries, we need to interact with these francophone neighbours, France and other francophone countries in terms of linguistic co-operation and bilateral relations. This paper therefore examines the place of French language in building the nation Nigeria; its importance and benefits to the citizenry. The paper recommends amongst other things that French language be given priority attention in Nigeria Educational system so as to equip Nigerians with the basic working implement for building the nation Nigeria.

<p style="margin-left: 17pt;">KEYWORDS: French, economic, social, political, cultural, linguistic, scientific, technological, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

<p style="text-align: justify;">To build a nation entails channeling all resources together to give the citizens of that country a better life. The resources we mean here range from economic, social, political, cultural, linguistic, scientific, technological, natural etc. No nation is ever built without communication. Language plays a vital role in the nation building process. There are policies to be made both internal and external and all must be documented with language. The blue print which contains the architectural design of the structure to be built for instance is always interpreted with language­. The business transaction and interactions with other countries involve the use of language. We know that no country however rich as it may be cannot possess all the resources it needs to build its nation hence the fundamental basis of International Trade Dewett (2005).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Considering Nigeria’s tremendous mineral resources and natural endowments we must do business with our francophone neighbours. In the light of the above, there is the dire need for French language to be integrated into the building plan as entrenched in the words of the late head of state of Nigeria, General Sani Abacha on December 14th 1996 as quoted by Ade Ojo in Onyemelukwe (2004:20).

<p style="margin: 0cm 42.15pt 0.0001pt 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">“We have seen that we are virtually surrounded by French speaking countries and these countries are our kith and kin. But, because of the difference inherited in language of our colonial masters, there is a vacuum in communication with our neighbours. It is our interest to learn French.”

<p style="text-align: justify;">This statement highlights the importance of French language in building a virile and viable nation. We need co-operation with our neighbours in its entirety to build the nation regionally, economically, linguistically culturally, etc. Nigeria’s bilateral relations and partnership with France – a leading business partner with Nigeria and a world economic power makes French important trying to build this nation.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Aims and objectives

<p style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">(i) To show the importance of French language in nation building in an Anglophone country surrounded by Francophone countries.

<p style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">(ii) To highlight the importance of a second international language in this era of globalization.

<p style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">(iii) To highlight the relationship between international language on one side and unity, political and economic stability on the other side in a country with vast array of indigenous languages and culture

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<p style="text-align: justify;">The notion of nation building

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nation building according to Wales (2010) is the process of constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state. This process aims at the unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. Nation building can involve the use of propaganda or major infrastructure development to foster social harmony and economic growth.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nation building includes the creation of national paraphernalia such as national flags, national anthems, national days, national stadia, national airlines, national language and national myth. However at a deeper level national identity needed to be deliberately constructed by molding different groups into a nation especially in the case of Nigeria with its vast array of indigenous languages as opined by Caviedes (2003)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Why French language in nation building in Nigeria?

<p style="text-align: justify;">Nigeria will be doomed if it tries to build a national identity without considering its immediate neighbours, the sub-region and the international community. How can we jettison aside with levity the exigency of communicating with our neighbours or transacting business with them?

<p style="text-align: justify;">What will be the basis of communication? What language can Nigeria and its neighbours use to distinguish themselves from two blind, deaf and dumb trying to communicate with each other? The problem is a dual facet problem and the solution can be proffered on one side. We cannot wait for our neighbours to learn English language before we can do business with them effectively. This is as a result of a lot of factors which we believe are obvious.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Firstly, Nigeria as the giant of Africa really needs to bestride Africa like a colossus starting from its neighbours. If we must assume the role of leadership in Africa and to stamp our authority and supremacy in all spheres of life we must be fluent, effective and proficient in the two most dominant official languages in Africa (English and French) one, of which we already have by virtue of inheritance from our colonial masters Britain Onyemelukwe (2004).

<p style="text-align: justify;">Secondly, globalization has issued a non-restriction order to every frontier, giving asses to everyone to do business anywhere in the world without hitches. There is no business that can be transacted without language. French language is one of the dominating languages in the world in terms of business, medicine, technology, science, computer, arts and culture etc. Nigeria therefore needs to incorporate the language so as to meet up with the growing challenges of globalization.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Thirdly, one of the yardsticks to measure 21st century compliance in no distant time perhaps is going to be French language in Nigeria. In fact, if you are not French literate shortly, the millennium will have no place for you. It is obvious that with the growing number of graduates flooding the job market with very many of them ‘half baked’ those with knowledge of French have an added advantage. In no distant time, from now, French language and computer will be the most important requirement for employment into very many establishments.

<p style="text-align: justify;">As Nigeria spreads its business ventures abroad especially across our borders we need dedicated and committed Nigerians who can be the eye of Nigeria over these businesses abroad. Can you imagine the difficulties if these ambassadors will face if they are not French literate.

French language, politics and regional cooperation

<p style="text-align: justify;">For Nigeria to maintain its lead in African politics and for her to remain the hub of geo-politics in the African continent, we have to elaborately co-operate with our neighbours and other countries especially the francophone countries by incorporating French language as an integral part of building our national identity.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Regional cooperation is also very necessary to avoid crisis and sometimes to resolve border disputes, conflicts, trans-border smuggling and other crimes. This cannot be achieved without bilateral talks between the affected countries. It will be more disheartening and absolutely problematic if by trying to resolve disputes and conflicts both parties do not understand each other not on the crux of the matter but by the barrier created by language. This can lead to disintegration and further complication of the issue on ground. We believe that that was Nigeria conceded some of its land around Bakassi area to the Cameroonians because a good deal was not struck because of language

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<p style="text-align: justify;">barrier. Peace keeping missions and conflict resolutions become painfully impossible and regional cooperation becomes truncated without the knowledge of French language.

<p style="text-align: justify;">French language and economic cooperation

<p style="text-align: justify;">For Nigeria economy to receive a boost outside the oil and gas industry, we need to tap the resources we think are not necessary, unuseful and meager looking. This could be found in the way of business transaction with other countries. Take for instance the telecommunication business and the banking sector taken outside our borders could be very lucrative business. This will be very easy with the English speaking countries because of the language advantage that we have. But this can also be carried out too with the French speaking countries as expressed by Emordi (2007). If we have the basic knowledge of French strong enough to transact business with francophone countries, why distrust them for cheating, defrauding and swindling us thereby making us to shy away from doing profitable business that could catapult our economy to the next level?

<p style="text-align: justify;">To build the nation we must build our economy, it is a pivotal instrument for progress peace and stability on which platform development can stand. Also, if we must build our economy, we must build a language with which our nation can communicate economically with other countries as it is opined by Madueke (2007). The era of looking for interpreters; some of whom are dubious is gradually fading away. If we have the knowledge of the French language then why look for the services of an interpreter.

<p style="text-align: justify;">To consolidate the Franco- Nigerian economic co-operation which has existed before the late 70’s which has also contributed immensely to the building of this country economically we need to do more in terms of strengthening economic ties with these countries.

<p style="text-align: justify;">FRENCH LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION

<p style="text-align: justify;">The aim of learning French language in Nigeria is not just only to contribute to the education of the individual by giving him access to the culture of a group of people he doesn’t have daily contact with Wilkins (1973:154), but to increase the ease of contact and communication with French language speakers inside and outside the country through phone calls, internet, post, reports invoices, orders, memoranda etc as contained in the definition of communication by Kure (2001:216).

<p style="text-align: justify;">The acquisition of and the ability to us language is one of the most impressive process of learning that an individual achieves during the course of his life time Madueke (2007:2). How essential would this be if this language will be French language in this our present circumstances in Nigeria where we don’t understand our neighbours. This type of acquisition goes a long way in helping nation building

<p style="text-align: justify;">There is the need to re-educate more people including adults who have long left school in form of mass literacy programme to acquire French language to give more value to their lives in this era of globalization. Looking at our neighbouring countries in terms of communication needs, French should be the language to be given special consideration in our primary and tertiary institutions.

<p style="text-align: justify;">According to Ukala (2008) “the product of education is knowledge.” but the pertinent question is knowledge for what? The knowledge to building the nation. When people are educated they acquire greater skills and ability (physical and mental) for creativity responsibility and psychological well-being. Onyemelukwe (2004) categorically states that French language is a vital instrument for nation building and therefore indispensable to Nigeria.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The above statement by Onyemelukwe has communicated volumes of information about the status of French language and nation building in Nigeria if not that Nigeria has the problem of implementation its educational polices are effective enough to accommodate the 10 years master plan proposed by the presidential task force set up by the then military administration of General Sani Abacha in 1997. If that was done, a large percentage of Nigerians would have been French literate by now. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1998:9) has it spelt out like this: “government appreciates the importance of language as a means of promoting social interaction and national cohesion and preserving cultures… accordingly, French shall be second official language in Nigeria and it shall be compulsory in schools.

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<p style="text-align: justify;">THE FRANCO-NIGERIAN LINGUISTIC CO-OPREATION

<p style="text-align: justify;">One of the areas of building the nation in French language is the Franco-Nigeria linguistic co-operation. France has contributed a lot to the building of Nigeria. The various French language centres, Alliance Française, all the Departments of French in Colleges of Education, Polytechnics and Universities, Nigeria Association of French Teachers (N.A.F.T.), Nigeria University French Teachers Association, all play a part in the nation building as far as French language is concerned in Nigeria. These also contribute immensely to the Franco- Nigerian linguistic co-operation. The French Oil Companies like Total, Elf (TOTALFINAELF) and other companies like Peugeot Association of Nigeria (PAN) all play their roles in this co-operation to build this country as stated by Onyemelukwe (2004).

CONCLUSION

<p style="text-align: justify;">In conclusion, nation building demands a lot of efforts. All strata of the society, people of all works of life take part in this process. In Nigeria, we definitely cannot build well without French language as language is the vehicle for communication. To communicate with our neighbours in business transaction and other forms of co-operation, we need French language to achieve the motive of building this nation. With the present trend of globalization the knowledge of French language is absolutely an added advantage for Nigerians to effectively build their nation as all her neighbours are French speaking countries. French language will now create an enabling environment conducive for interactions and business transactions with our neighbours, the francophone countries and members of the international community.

RECOMMENDATION

<p style="text-align: justify;">French language should be given more priority attention in the three tiers of education in fulfillment of the recent national policy on Education. This should start from the primary schools, adult education, and secondary schools so that within a short time we can achieve our goal of building.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Graduates of Polytechnics, Colleges Education and Universities should be re-educated to acquire certificates at French language centres and Alliance Française to increase French literacy in the country as we have in computer.

<p style="text-align: justify;">French language should be made compulsory in all secondary schools in this country from JSS1-SS2 and at first year of all tertiary institutions.

<p style="text-align: justify;">The Federal Government of Nigeria should give scholarship to those who intend to study French at the tertiary institution. This should include a trip to France for one year abroad programme to encourage participation and commitment.

<p style="text-align: justify;">More French teachers should be trained and employed with high remunerations and incentives. This will bring out French graduates who are either self-employed or working outside the teaching profession. This should be done in conjunction with the French and Belgian governments to enhance and promote the Franco-Nigerian co-operation which is symbiotic.

<p style="text-align: justify;">REFERENCES

<p style="text-align: justify;">Caviedes, A. (2003) Role of Language in Nation Building within the E U. Retrieved from www.springerlink.com/index

<p style="text-align: justify;">Dewett, K. K. (2005) Modern Economic Theory New Delhi: Rajandra Ravindra Printers Ltd.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Emordi, F. (2007) Bonjour le Nigeria comment ça va? The French language in Nigeria so far (1859-2007) an inaugural lecture delivered in the 28th series of inaugural lectures of Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma on Thursday 29th March 2007.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Federal Republic of Nigeria (1998) National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

<p style="text-align: center;">Obi, Ogwezi Abel and Agbagbatu, Samuel Oghenekaro: Continental J. Arts and Humanities 2: 46 - 50, 2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) (2004) (Revised Edition). National Policy on Education Lagos: NERDC Press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Kure, A. (2004) Use of English Communication. Zaria. Dunads Communicates.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Madueke, A. (2007) Principles and Practice of Teaching English as a Second Language. Lagos: Vitaman Educational Books

<p style="text-align: justify;">Onyemelukwe, I. (2004). The French Language and Literacy Creativity in Nigeria. Zaria: Labelle Educational Publisher.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Ukala, S. (2008) The Body of Knowledge: An Overview of General Studies Programme in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions. A keynote Address presented at the first School of General Studies Conference at the Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, on March 2008.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Wales, J. (2010) Nation-Building (from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia) retrieved from Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nation-building

<p style="text-align: justify;">Wilkins, D.A. (1973) Linguistics in Language Teaching London: Edward Arnold Publishers Limited.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Received for Publication: 20/08/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Accepted for Publication: 25/09/2010

<p style="text-align: justify;">Corresponding author

Agbagbatu, Samuel Oghenekaro

Directorate of General Studies, Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, Delta State, Nigeria